Novel Gold-Based Nanocrystals for Medical Treatments and Electrochemical Manufacturing Processes Therefor

ABSTRACT

The invention includes novel electrochemical manufacturing apparatuses and techniques for making the gold-based nanocrystals. The invention further includes pharmaceutical compositions thereof and the use of the gold nanocrystals or suspensions or colloids thereof for the treatment or prevention of diseases or conditions for which gold therapy is already known and more generally for conditions resulting from pathological cellular activation, such as inflammatory (including chronic inflammatory) conditions, autoimmune conditions, hypersensitivity reactions and/or cancerous diseases or conditions. In one embodiment, the condition is mediated by MIF (macrophage migration inhibiting factor).

The present application is a division of U.S. application Ser. No.15/465,092 (filed Mar. 21, 2017). U.S. application Ser. No. 15/465,092is a division of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/382,781 (filed Dec. 28,2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,603,870 (issued Mar. 28, 2017). U.S.application Ser. No. 13/382,781 is a U.S. national stage entry ofInternational Application No. PCT/US2010/41427, filed Jul. 8, 2010. Saidinternational application claims priority to seven other US patentapplications: 1) U.S. Ser. No. 61/223,944 filed on Jul. 8, 2009; 2) U.S.Ser. No. 61/226,153 filed on Jul. 16, 2009; 3) U.S. Ser. No. 61/228,250filed on Jul. 24, 2009; 4) U.S. Ser. No. 61/235,574 filed on Aug. 20,2009; 5) U.S. Ser. No. 61/249,804 filed on Oct. 8, 2009; 6) U.S. Ser.No. 61/263,648 filed on Nov. 23, 2009; and 7) U.S. Ser. No. 61/294,690filed on Jan. 13, 2010.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to novel gold nanocrystals and nanocrystalshape distributions that have surfaces that are substantially free fromorganic or other impurities or films. Specifically, the surfaces are“clean” relative to the surfaces of gold nanoparticles made usingchemical reduction processes that require organic reductants and/orsurfactants to grow gold nanoparticles from gold ions in solution.

The invention includes novel electrochemical manufacturing apparatusesand techniques for making the gold-based nanocrystals. The inventionfurther includes pharmaceutical compositions thereof and the use of thegold nanocrystals or suspensions or colloids thereof for the treatmentor prevention of diseases or conditions for which gold therapy isalready known and more generally for conditions resulting frompathological cellular activation, such as inflammatory (includingchronic inflammatory) conditions, autoimmune conditions,hypersensitivity reactions and/or cancerous diseases or conditions. Inone embodiment, the condition is mediated by MIF (macrophage migrationinhibiting factor).

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Gold Salts

Robert Koch is credited with discovering the bacteriostatic effect ofgold cyanide on Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It was subsequently observedthat patients with tuberculosis often benefited from a reduction incertain inflammatory conditions when given gold salt injections for thedisease. This observed reduction in inflammation led to aurothiolatesbeing used by Forestier in 1927 as a treatment for rheumatoid arthritis(Panyala, 2009) (Abraham, 1997). The early gold-based products weretypically injected in an intramuscular, or subcutaneous manner (andlater in an intraarterial manner) and some are still available todayand/or still being used to treat rheumatoid arthritis.

Specifically, it has been known for many years that certain goldcompounds possess anti-inflammatory activity. For example, (i) sodiumgold thiomalate (also referred to as “gold sodium thiomalate”), marketedas Myocrisin and related chemical versions, marketed as Myochrisine andMyochrisis; (ii) sodium gold thioglucose (also referred to as “goldsodium thioglucose”), marketed as Solganol; (iii) sodium goldthiosulfate, marketed as Sanocrysin and related chemical versions,marketed as Crisalbine, Aurothion and Sanocrysis; and (iv) sodium goldthiopropanolsulfonate, marketed as Allocrysine, have been used in thetreatment of rheumatoid arthritis (Sadler, 1976; Shaw, 1999; Eisler,p.133, 2004). Only monovalent gold salts were believed to exhibittherapeutic effects for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. In 1961the Empire Rheumatism Council affirmed that injectable gold salts showedefficacy and gold salts remain a widely used method of treatment ofprogressive rheumatoid arthritis (Ueda, 1998).

Treatment with various gold salts has also been suggested, oranecdotally observed, to be effective in a range of other diseases,including asthma, HIV, malaria and cancer. A considerable body ofevidence exists in these diseases, in both human and animal models,suggesting that gold may be a viable treatment option for these areas ofunmet medical need (Dabrowiak, 2009).

Oral Gold

More recently, an oral gold product, 2,3,4,6-Tetra-o-acetyl I-thio B-D-gIucopyranosato-S-(triethyl-phosphine), marketed as Auranofin® orRidaura® in several parts of the world, has become available (Ho &Tiekink, 2005, Dabrowiak, 2009). Auranofin® was approved by the FDA forhuman use in the mid-1980's; and Auranofin® had the advantage of beingorally absorbed, but was considered to be less effective than theinjectable gold thiolates (Sadler, 1976; Shaw 1999).

Toxicology of Gold Salts and Oral Gold

Historically, toxicity has limited the use of all injectable and oralgold-based therapies, with anywhere from 30-50% of patients terminatingvarious gold-based treatments due to undesirable or intolerable sideeffects. The side effects of many conventional gold therapies includerashes or mucocutaneous effects (e.g., pruritus, dermatitis andstomatitis); hematologic changes (e.g., thrombocytopenia); protein inthe urine (proteinuria); inflammation of the mouth; reduction in thenumber of circulating leukocytes; decreased number of blood platelets;aplastic anemia due to organ damage; lung abnormalities; adverse immunereactions, such as eosinophilia, lymphadenopathy, hypergammaglobulinemia; severe hypotension, angina, myocardial infarction,nephrotoxicity and nephrotic syndrome; hepatitis; colitis; andchrysiasis (pigmentation) of the cornea, lens, and skin (Eisler, p.133-134, 2004). The most common side effect of chrysotherapy was skintoxicity, accounting for up to 60% of all adverse reactions, especiallylichenoid eruptions and non-specific dermatitis (Eisler, p. 133-134,2004). These side effects are believed to be related to the formulationsused (e.g., carrier molecule, oxidation state of the gold in thecompound, etc.), rather than the gold itself (Ho & Tiekink, 2005).

Payne and Arena in 1978 reported the subacute and chronic toxicity ofseveral oral gold compounds, including Auranofin®, in rats, compared toan injected gold control. Sprague Dawley rats were dosed for periods of6 weeks, 6 months and one year. In a follow-up study, the 1-yearinvestigation was repeated with sequential kills and a modified dosingregimen.

The target organs identified by this study were the stomach and kidney.Gastric changes consisted of superficial erosions of the mucosaextending up to ⅓ of the thickness of the mucosa and covering up to 5%of its surface area. This change was dose-related and was associatedwith loss of body weight. Healing lesions were also evident. In thekidney of rats given SK&F 36914 for six months there was enlargement ofcortical tubular epithelial cells (cytomegaly). In addition, there was adose-related enlargement of the nucleus (karyomegaly), with evidence ofpleomorphic and multinucleate cells. In the 1-year study similar changeswere seen, but in addition renal cortical cell adenomas were seen in adose-related incidence (0/38, 3/39, 6/37 and 8/37 for control, low,intermediate and high dose respectively). In a repeated 1-year study anunexpectedly high incidence of mortality occurred. This was attributedto ileocaecal lesions that progressed to ulceration that appeared toperforate the gut wall in a number of cases. Presumably death resultedfrom acute infectious peritonitis. In the injected controls, gold sodiumthiomalate was administered by intra-muscular injection once weekly fora year and, in a second study, once weekly for 46 weeks and then dailyfor 330 days. In the 1-year study, renal tubular cell karyomegaly wasobserved and renal cell adenoma was seen in 1/16 females but not inmales. In the 21-month study all surviving rats showed karyomegaly ofthe renal cortical tubular epithelium and cystic tubules were frequentlyobserved. Renal adenomas, occasionally multiple, were seen in 8/8females and 3/7 males surviving to 21 months (Payne & Arena, 1978).Similar results were seen in dogs (Payne & Arena, The subacute andchronic toxicity of SK&F 36914 and SK&F D-39162 in dogs, 1978). Szabo etal 1978a reported the effects of gold-containing compounds, includingAuranofin® on pregnant rats and fetuses. The effects of gold sodiumthiomalate and the oral gold compound Auranofin® on maternal and fetaltoxicity and teratogenicity were investigated. Oral gold wasadministered by intubation on days 6-15 of pregnancy, while gold sodiumthiomalate was administered on days 6-15 by subcutaneous injection. Thiswas a standard exposure period in such studies and this exposure isconsidered to be equivalent to the first trimester of a human pregnancy.Standard procedures were used to examine fetuses and group sizes wereadequate for the purpose of the study. Maternal and fetal toxicity wasevident, and fetuses of gold sodium thiomalate-dosed animals showed apattern of dose-related malformations. The doses used led to death of aproportion of the dams and showed marked effects on body weight(including actual weight loss at the start of dosing) and reduced foodconsumption. The malformations included skeletal anomalies, externalmalformations and degrees of hydrocephalus and ocular defects. SK&FD-39162 did not affect food intake or weight gain, but was alsoassociated with reductions in fetal weight compared to controls. Theonly major defect found with SK&F D-39162 treatment was edema. There wasno evidence of an effect of gold sodium thiomalate on implantation,resorption, fetal number or fetal weight in the gold sodiumthiomalate-treated animals. These authors concluded that the effects onthe fetus were indirect and were attributable to accumulation of gold inthe lysosomes of the visceral yolk sac epithelium, with consequentinhibition of vital enzymes involved in fetal nutrition. This hypothesiswas advanced to explain the teratogenicity of other chemicals and couldbe plausible (Szabo, Guerriero, & Kang, The effects of gold containingcompounds on pregnant rats and their fetuses, 1978).

Szabo et al 1978b reported the effects of gold-containing compounds onpregnant rabbits and fetuses. In this study pregnant rabbits were dosedfrom days 6-18 of pregnancy. Gold sodium thiomalate was administered bysub-cutaneous injection and oral compounds were given by intubation.Both routes of administration led to maternal deaths and abortions werealso observed in surviving animals. Dose-related decreases in maternalfood consumption, leading to actual body weight losses, were observed atthe higher doses of both injected and oral gold. Effects were alsoevident on litter sizes, numbers of resorptions and mean fetal weights.Fetal anomalies and malformations were also observed, primarily in theabdomen (gastroschisis and umbilical hernia), with a lower incidence ofanomalies affecting the brain, heart lungs and skeleton. The authorsconcluded that the incidence of abdominal anomalies, exceeding all oftheir historical control data, indicated a specific sensitivity in therabbit to such an effect of gold (Szabo, DiFebbo, & Phelan, 1978).

Based on these studies, oral administration of relatively high doses ofgold-containing compounds was associated with a dose-related incidenceof erosions of the gastric mucosa and, in a longer duration study, ofsignificant ileocaecal lesions (including ulceration) that caused thedeaths of a number of animals. Examination of the data presentedsuggested that the gastric lesions were typical of a marked direct localeffect on the mucosa. The renal cortical tubular epithelium was anothertarget tissue, perhaps through the development of high localconcentrations during the concentration of the urine. The corticaltubular epithelium lesions progressed from karyomegaly to adenomaformation in a significant number of animals. Although this is a benigntumor it cannot be ignored in terms of risk assessment. However, it isalso notable that lesions of the rodent kidney are relatively common,particularly in males, but these appeared to affect females relativelymore than males in these studies.

The gastric lesions occurred after administration of relatively largeamounts of gold solutions. There was also a suggestion in these studiesthat the important toxic agent is ionic gold (e.g., Au (III) or Au³⁺).Lesions of this type are also produced by many NSAID agents used in thetreatment of various forms of arthritis and are generally considered tobe a manageable, albeit undesirable, side effect. Accordingly, theabsence of such negative effects would constitute an advantage overexisting gold-based therapies.

Cheriathundam and Alvares in 1996 evaluated the effects of sodium goldthiolate and Auranofin® on liver and kidney markers and metallothioneinlevels in the Sprague Dawley rat and three strains of mouse(Swiss-Webster, C3H/Hej and DBA/2J). In the rat, gold sodium thiolateled to a 7-fold increase in liver metallothionein levels, whereas in themouse strains metallothionein levels increased 2-fold in theSwiss-Webster and about 5-fold in the inbred strains. Gold sodiumthiolate led to only minimal changes in renal metallothionein levels inthe mouse strains. The liver marker serum ALAT was not altered by goldsodium thiolate in any of the species or strains tested. BUN, anindicator of kidney function, was elevated 3-fold in rats but not in anyof the mouse strains. These data are consistent with the observationthat gold sodium thiolate is nephrotoxic in rats and humans, but it isinteresting to note the lack of evidence of nephrotoxicity in the mouse(Cheriathundam & Alvares, 1996).

The observation of embryonic toxicity and fetal defects after treatmentof pregnant animals of two species suggests the possibility that gold inmany, if not all previously used forms, represents a developmental risk.This has parallels with many other current RA therapies, in whichmethotrexate, for example, is subject to label warnings regardingpotential harmful effects on the fetus.

Several possible pharmacological actions contributing to both clinicalefficacy and adverse reactions have been identified for oral gold. Forexample, Walz and his colleagues showed that Auranofin® inhibitedcarrageenan-induced edema in rats in a dose-related fashion inconcentrations of 40, 20 and 10 mg/kg with maximum inhibition of 86% atthe highest dose, and a serum gold level of approximately 10 μg/mL. Thetwo basic ligands of Auranofin®, namely triethylphosphine oxide and2,3,4,6-tetra-o-acetyl-1-thio-B-D glucopyranose did not show anysignificant biological activity, and gold sodium thiomalate, goldthioglucose and thiomalic acid did not significantly affect rat pawedema. Auranofin® was shown to significantly suppress adjuvantarthritis, whereas the ligands were without any effect. Auranofin®inhibited antibody dependent complement lysis. Auranofin® has been shownto inhibit the release of lysosomal enzymes such as B-glucuronidase andlysozyme from stimulated polymorphs. Auranofin® is a potent inhibitor ofantibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity exhibited by polymorphs fromadjuvant arthritic rats. Auranofin® is a much more potent inhibitor ofsuperoxide production than gold sodium thiomalate. In an immunephagocytosis assay, gold sodium thiomalate showed no inhibitory activityat a concentration of 40 times that of Auranofin®, causing markedinhibition (Walz, DiMartino, Intocca, & Flanagan, 1983).

Walz and his colleagues also stated that Auranofin® was more potent thangold sodium thiomalate as an inhibitor of cutaneous migration,chemotaxis and phagocystosis by peripheral blood monocytes. Lipsky andhis colleagues showed that Auranofin®, like gold sodium thiomalate,inhibited lymphoblastogenesis in vitro by directly inhibiting ofmononuclear phagocytes. However, Auranofin® also had an inhibitoryeffect on lymphocyte function, not observed with gold sodium thiomalate.Inhibition of monocytes was achieved with concentrations of Auranofin®which were 10 to 20-fold lower than those of the gold sodium thiomalate(Walz, DiMartino, Intocca, & Flanagan, 1983).

In general, patients with active rheumatoid disease have a decreasedcapacity for either mitogen-stimulated lymphoblastogenesis or forlymphoblastogenesis induced by the mixed lymphocyte reaction. Althoughpatients initially treated with gold sodium thiomalate first showed somesuppression of mitogen-stimulated lymphoblastogensis, those whoeventually responded to the drug showed normal lymphocyte responsivenessin vitro. In contrast, within a few weeks of patients receivingAuranofin®, lymphocyte responsiveness was markedly inhibited. Thus,Auranofin® exhibits a powerful immunosuppressant effect in vitro at anorder of magnitude less than the injectable gold compounds, most likelydue to the major differences in the pharmacological properties of theoral compounds versus the injectable gold-thiol compounds (Dabrowiak,2009).

Adverse reactions were the major limiting factor to the use of oral goldcompounds such as Auranofin®, in that approximately 30-50% of treatedpatients developed some form of toxicity (Dabrowiak, 2009) (Kean &Anastassiades, 1979) (Kean & Kean, The clinical Pharmacology of Gold,2008).

Skin rash was the most common negative side effect and some form of rashoccurred in approximately 30% of patients. Most lesions occurred on thehands, forearm, trunk and shins, but occasionally occurred on the faceand were slightly erythematous with scaly patches, 1-10 cm in size,resembling a seborrheic rash. Severe problems of skin rash in the formof nummular eczema, total exfoliation and intense pruritis have beenrecorded as rare.

Oral ulcers (painful and pain free) resembling the aphthous ulcer,occurred in approximately 20% of patients who received injectable goldtherapy. The development of a mouth ulcer was a definitecontraindication to continuation of gold therapy since it was known thatoral ulceration could herald pemphigold-like bullous skin lesions.

The frequency of protein urea varied widely (0-40%) in the studiesreported by Kean and Anastassiades, most likely reflecting differentdefinitions as to what constitutes protein urea. In these studies thereare no well documented cases of any long term serious or permanent renaldamage due to gold therapy; however microscopic haematuria was a causefor discontinuing oral gold treatment (Kean & Anastassiades, 1979).

Thrombocytopenia due to gold compounds occurred as two distinct types:the more usual was associated with platelet surface IgG antibody and theother less common was secondary to bone marrow suppression. The geneticmarker HLA DR3 may indicate an increased risk of a patient developingthrombocytopenia associated with platelet surface antibodies.

Idiopathic toxicities in the form of cholestatic jaundice or acuteenterocolitis have also been associated with the injectable goldcompounds, particularly gold sodium thiomalate, but have not beenreported with oral gold.

The deposition of elemental gold in the lens of the eye and the corneahas been reported, but this did not seem to result in any specificdamage to visual acuity.

Specific to oral gold therapy was the development of loose soft stools,usually in the first month of therapy. The lower incidence of alteredstools in later treatment months may be related to an earlier drop-outof those patients susceptible to the diarrhea. The development of frankwatery diarrhea occurred in 2-5% of patients and appeared to bedose-related.

In general the adverse event incidence is lower with oral gold thaninjectable gold, but can still be substantial.

A second major drawback to the use of available gold-based treatments isthe very slow onset of efficacy. Patients often must continue treatmentwith, for example, gold salts for three to six months beforeexperiencing any significant benefit. This long wait for any observedbenefit is a major impediment to patient compliance and thereforeadversely affects efficacy in use.

The knowledge of the pharmacokinetic profiles of gold is largelycentered on the measurement of the element Au, but not much is known ofthe gold structure (e.g., its chemical or physical or crystallinestructure) when the gold is present in various tissues or organs.

After oral ingestion, oral gold complexes are rapidly, but incompletely,absorbed. The gold moiety of the injectable gold complex seems to berapidly absorbed into the circulation after intramuscular injection. Inblood circulation, Auranofin® (or ligands thereof) seem to be boundpredominately to albumin. Specifically, after oral administration ofradiolabeled Auranofin® to human volunteers, approximately 25% of theadministered dose was detected in the blood plasma, with peakconcentrations of 6-9 μg/100 mL being reached within 1-2 hours. Theplasma half-life was on the order of 15-25 days with almost total bodyelimination after 55-80 days. Only about 1% of radiolabeled Au wasdetectable after 180 days, whereas up to 30% of gold from gold sodiumthiomalate was detected at this time. The gold was widely distributedthroughout the reticulo-endothelial system, particularly in thephagocytic cells of the liver, bone marrow, lymph nodes, spleen, andalso in the synovium. Deposition in the skin occurred and it has beenobserved that there may be a quantitative correlation between the amountof gold in the dermis and the total dose of gold given. Electron densedeposits of gold were also observed in the tubular cells of the kidney,another site rich in sulphydryl-containing enzymes, but the presence ofgold associated with the glomerulus does not appear to be common (Walz,DiMartino, Intocca, & Flanagan, 1983) (Dabrowiak, 2009).

Gold Nanoparticles

Other formulations of gold have been and continue to be developed, mostof which utilize gold nanoparticles made by a variety of chemicalreduction techniques; and some of which utilize an underwater plasmaarcing technique; and most of which result in various stable orpartially stable gold colloids or gold nanoparticle suspensions.

Colloidal Gold Nanoparticles by Chemical Reduction

Michael Faraday made the first colloidal gold suspension by chemicalreduction methods around the 1850's (Faraday, 1857). Faraday usedreduction chemistry techniques to reduce chemically an aqueous goldsalt, chloroaurate (i.e., a gold (III) salt), utilizing eitherphosphorous dispersed into ether (e.g., CH₃—CH₂—O—CH₂—CH₃), or carbondisulfide (i.e, CS₂), as the reductant.

Today, most colloidal gold preparations are made by a reduction ofchloric acid (hydrogen tetrachloroaurate) with a reductant like sodiumcitrate to result in “Tyndall's purple.” There are now a variety of“typical” reduction chemistry methods used to form colloidal gold.Specifically, several classes of synthesis routes exist, each of whichdisplays different characteristics in the final products (e.g.,colloidal gold nanoparticles) produced thereby. It has been noted thatin addition to the strength, amount and type of the reductant utilized,the action of a stabilizer (i.e., the chemical utilized in the solutionphase synthesis process) is critical (Kimling, 2006).

While Faraday introduced colloidal gold solutions, the homogenouscrystallization methods of Turkevich and Frens (and variations thereof)are most commonly used today and typically result in mostlyspherical-shaped particles over a range of particle sizes (Kimling,2006). Specifically, most current methods start with a gold (III)complex such as hydrogen tetrachloroaurate (or chloric acid) and reducethe gold in the gold complex to gold metal (i.e., gold (0) or metallicgold) by using added chemical species reductants, such as Nathiocyanate, White P, Na₃ citrate & tannic acid, NaBH₄, Citric Acid,Ethanol, Na ascorbate, Na₃ citrate, Hexadecylaniline and others (Brown,2008). However, another chemical reduction technique uses sodiumborohydride as a chemical species reductant for AuP (Ph₃) (Brown, 2008).Depending on the particular processing conditions utilized in thesechemical reduction processes, the sizes of these mostly sphericalnanoparticles formed range from about lnm to about 64 nm in diameter(Brown, 2008). Additionally, specific thermal citrate reduction methodsutilized by Kimling resulted in a small fraction of triangular-shapedparticles, in addition to spherical-shaped particles, with thetriangular-shaped species at most being about 5% (Kimling 2006).

Additional work has focused on controlling shapes of colloidal metalnanoparticles. Biologists and biochemists have long understood that“structure dictates function” with regard to protein functioning. Goldnanoparticles of different shapes also possess different properties(e.g., optical, catalytic, biologic, etc.). Controlling nanoparticleshape provides an elegant approach to, for example, tune nanoparticlesoptically. While all gold nanoparticles contain a lattice that isface-centered cubic, if permitted or caused by certain processingconditions, gold nanoparticles can adopt a variety of crystalline shapesranging from irregular ellipsoids with defect loaded surfaces (e.g.,steps) to polyhedra with comparatively limited surface defects.Different crystalline morphologies are associated with different crystalplanes (or sets of crystal planes). However, some of the most commongold nanoparticle morphologies are not composed of single domains, butrather are made of twinned planes (Tao, 2008).

Yuan, et al. recognized that non-spherical-shaped gold nanoparticlescould be most readily achieved by providing seed crystals from aborohydride reduction of a gold salt (i.e., HAuCl₄ or auric acid). Theseed crystals were then placed into contact with the same gold salt insolution with the chemical species NH₂OH, CTAB and sodium citrate beingadded as reductants and/or surfactants (e.g., capping agents). Severaldifferent crystalline shapes were formed by this approach includingtriangular, truncated triangular, hexagonal layers andpseudo-pentagonal. Yuan concluded that variations in processing by usingdifferent chemical reduction techniques can influence the physical andchemical properties of the resulting particles. The researchers notedthat the choice of a capping agent was a key factor in controlling thegrowth (and shape) of the nanoparticles (Yuan, 2003).

The process described and used by Yuan is known as “heterogeneousnucleation” where seed particles are produced in a separate syntheticstep. Thus, this type of shape control can be considered an overgrowthprocess (Tao, 2008). Many chemical reduction techniques utilize thismore complex two-step heterogeneous nucleation and growth process.However, others use a single step homogenous nucleation whereby seedcrystals are first nucleated, and nanoparticles are then formed from thenucleated seed crystals. Typically, a series of chemical reactions occursimultaneously in homogeneous nucleation. A main goal in homogenousnucleation is to balance the rate of nucleation against the rate ofcrystal growth and to control particle size because both nucleation andgrowth proceed by the same chemical process(es) (Tao, 2008).

Metal nanoparticle synthesis in solution(s) commonly requires the use ofsurface-active agents (surfactants) and/or amphiphilic polymers asstabilizing agents and/or capping agents. It is well known thatsurfactants and/or amphiphilic polymers serve critical roles forcontrolling the size, shape and stability of dispersed particles (Sakai,2008).

Some of the most common crystal morphologies observed in crystallinegold nanoparticles (for example in heterogeneous nucleation processes)do not consist of single crystals or single domains, but ratherparticles containing multiple crystal domains, often bounded by twinplanes. A regular decahedron (also referred to as a pentagonalbi-pyramid) is an equilibrium shape bound completely by triangular (III)facets and can be thought of as five tetrahedral sharing a common edgealong a fivefold axis. These structures are commonly observed fornanocrystalline particles synthesized by metal evaporation onto solidsubstrates and seeded heterogeneous nucleation reduction chemistryapproaches (Tao, 2008). However, for nanoparticles synthesized by themethods of Turkevich and Frens, decahedra are difficult to observebecause they function as favorable seeds for the growth of nanowires andnanorods (Tao, 2008). Thus, a variety of shapes can be achieved bycontrolling processing conditions, along with the amounts and types ofsurfactants and capping agents added and used during the reductionchemistry approaches attributed to Turkevich and Frens.

In each of the colloidal gold compositions produced by reductionchemistry approaches, it is apparent that a surface coating comprisingone or more elements of the reductant and/or the surfactant or cappingagent will be present on (or in) at least a portion of the suspendedgold nanoparticles. The use of a reductant (i.e., a reducing agent)typically assists in suspending the nanoparticles in the liquid (e.g.,water). However, the reducing agent coating or surface impurity issometimes added to or even replaced by surfactant coatings or cappingagents. Such reductant/surfactant coatings or films can be viewed asimpurities located on and/or in the metal-based nanoparticles and mayresult in such colloids or sols actually possessing more of theproperties of the protective coating or film than the gold nanoparticleper se (Weiser, p. 42, 1933).

For example, surfactants and amphiphilic polymers become heavilyinvolved not only in the formation of nanoparticles (thus affecting sizeand shape), but also in the nanoparticles per se. Surface properties ofthe nanoparticles are modified by reductant coatings and/or surfactantmolecule coatings (Sperling, 2008).

Absorption of a hydrophobic tail, a hydrophilic head group and certaincounter ions (at least in the case of the use of ionic surfactants) onthe surface of nucleated particles, as well as complexation of metalions with surfactants and/or amphiphilic polymers with the formedparticles, all can influence the shape of the nanoparticles, the surfaceof the nanoparticles and/or alter the functioning of the nanoparticles(Sakai, 2008).

Different surface chemistries or surface films (e.g., the presence ofreductant by-product compositions and/or thicknesses (e.g., films) ofreductant by-products) can result in different interactions of the goldnanoparticles with, for example, a variety of proteins in an organism.Biophysical binding forces (e.g., electrostatic, hydrophobic, hydrogenbinding, van der Waals) of nanoparticles to proteins are a function notonly of the size, shape and composition of the nanoparticles, but alsothe type of and/or thickness of the surface impurities or coating(s) onthe nanoparticles. The Turkevich and Frens methods (and variationsthereof) for making gold nanoparticles are the most widely understoodand utilized chemical reduction processes. The use of a citric acid orsodium citrate reductant results in citrate-based chemistries (e.g., acitrate-based coating) on the surface of the gold nanoparticle (i.e.,also referred to as citrate-stabilized) (Lacerda, 2010).

Further, Daniel et al. reviewed the major gold nanoparticle formationtechniques, including the chemical synthesis and assembly processesincluding: (1) citrate reduction, which results in “a rather loose shellof [citrate-based] ligands” attached to the gold nanoparticles; (2) avariation of the citrate reduction method which uses a citrate salt andan amphiphile surfactant (for size control); (3) the “Brust-Schiffrin”methods which result in thiol or thiolate ligands “that strongly bindgold”; (4) methods that result in sulfur-containing ligands includingxanthates, disulfides, dithiols, trithiols and resorcinarenetetrathiols; and (5) other ligands that relate to phosphine, phosphineoxide, amines, carboxylates, aryl isocyanides, and iodides (which canreplace citrate coatings). The authors reiterated statements attributedto Brust regarding formed gold nanoparticles: “The resulting physicalproperties are neither those of the bulk metal nor those of themolecular compounds, but they strongly depend on the particle size,interparticle distance, nature of the protecting organic shell, andshape of the nanoparticles.” (Daniel, 2004)

While the organic ligands present on the gold nanoparticles (e.g.,citrate-based ligands or coatings or films) helps to stabilize the goldnanoparticles in the liquid to prevent the nanoparticle from, forexample, being attached to other nanoparticles and agglomerating and/orsettling out of suspension due to, for example, gravity, theseorganic-based ligands (e.g., organic shells) are impurities (i.e,relative to the underlying gold nanoparticle) and contribute to the goldnanoparticle's interaction with proteins in a living system. Suchcoating(s) or film(s) can have strong biological influences (Lacerda,2010).

Further, Wang et al concluded that the commonly used citrate-reducedgold nanoparticles interfere with the uptake of gold nanoparticlesrelative to reductant and stabilizer-free colloidal solutions (Wang,2007).

Likewise, Lacerda, et al. stated that a better understanding of thebiological effects of nanoparticles requires an understanding of thebinding properties of the in-vivo proteins that associate themselveswith the nanoparticles. Protein absorption (or a protein corona) onnanoparticles can change as a function of nanoparticle size and surfacelayer composition and thickness. Lacerda concluded that the proteinlayers that “dress” the nanoparticle control the propensity of thenanoparticles to aggregate and strongly influence their interaction withbiological materials (Lacerda, 2010).

Cleaning Colloidal Gold Nanoparticles Made by Chemical ReductionTechniques

In some cases, the reductant surface coating or film is permitted toremain as an impurity on the surface of the nanoparticles, but in othercases, it is attempted to be removed by a variety of somewhat complexand costly techniques. When removed, the coating typically is replacedby an alternative composition or coating to permit the nanoparticles tostay in suspension when hydrated. The influence of purity on thechemistry and properties of nanoparticles is often overlooked; however,results now indicate that the extent of purification can have asignificant impact (Sweeney, 2006). These researchers noted thatsufficient purification of nanoparticles can be more challenging thatthe preparation itself, usually involving tedious, time-consuming andwasteful procedures such as extensive solvent washes and fractionalcrystallization. Absent such purification, the variables of surfacechemistry-related contaminants on the surface of chemically reducednanoparticles affects the ability to understand/control basicstructure-function relationships (Sweeney, 2006).

Subsequent processing techniques may also require a set of washingsteps, certain concentrating or centrifuging steps, and/or subsequentchemical reaction coating steps, all of which are required to achievedesirable results and certain performance characteristics (e.g.,stabilization due to ligand exchange, efficacy, etc.) for thenanoparticles and nanoparticle suspensions (Sperling, 2008). In othercases, harsh stripping methods are used to ensure very cleannanoparticle surfaces (Panyala, 2009).

Thus, others have concluded that the development of gold nanoparticlesin the management, treatment and/or prevention of diseases is hamperedby the fact that current manufacturing methods for gold nanoparticlesare by-and-large based on chemical reduction processes. Specifically,Robyn Whyman, in 1996, recognized that one of the main hindrances in theprogress of colloidal golds manufactured by a variety of reductionchemistry techniques was the lack of any “relatively simple,reproducible and generally applicable synthetic procedures” (Whyman1996). There are many variations of the original reduction chemistrytechniques taught by Faraday each of which can produce colloidal goldhaving a variety of different physical properties (e.g., alone or insuspension) and reductant coatings, all of which can result in differentefficacy/toxicity profiles when used in or with living cells. None ofthese techniques meet Whyman's criteria. Accordingly, a relativelysimple, reproducible and generally applicable manufacturing approach formaking gold nanocrystals would be welcomed . Further, the ability ofsuch a manufacturing approach to be compliant with FDA cGMP requirementswould be even more valuable.

Others have begun to recognize the inability to extricate completelyadverse physical/biological performance of the formed nanoparticles fromthe chemical formation (i.e., chemical reduction) processes used to makethem. In this regard, even though somewhat complex, expensive andnon-environmentally friendly, washing or cleaning processes can beutilized to alter or clean the surface of nanoparticles produced byreduction chemistry, elements of the chemical process may remain andaffect the surface of nanoparticles (and thus their functioning).Moreover, the presence of certain chemicals during the nanoparticleformation process affects the morphology (i.e, size and/or shape) of theforming nanoparticles. Certain possible desirable morphologies (shapes)known to exist in gold-based crystalline systems are not readilyobserved in many products produced by these reduction chemistrytechniques.

Other Techniques for Making Colloidal Gold

Obtaining a surfactant and reducer-free (e.g., no stabilizing, cappingor reducing agents added to achieve reduction of gold ionic species) hasbecome a goal of certain researchers who apparently understand someadverse consequences of reductant/surfactant coatings being present fromreduction chemistry approaches. For example, ultrasound techniques havebeen used whereby a 950 kHz frequency is applied to an aqueous hydrogentetrachloraurate solution. Spherical gold nanoparticles in the range of20-60 nm were prepared at temperatures above 50° C., while relativelylarger triangular plates and some hexagonal spheres coexisted when themixture was processed below 50° C. (Sakai, 2008).

X-ray irradiation of HAuCl₄ has been developed to obtain reductant andstabilizer-free gold nanoparticles so as not to “jeopardize”biocompatibility issues in biomedical applications. The authorsspeculated that they generated the required electrons for chemicalreduction of Au⁺ by using “intense” X-ray beams to create ahydrogen-free radical electron donor (Wang, 2007).

Another older and more complex technique for minimizing or eliminatingthe need for reducing agents and/or minimizing undesirable oxidationproducts of the reductant utilizes γ-irradiation from a ⁶⁰Co source at adose rate of 1.8×10⁴ rad/h. In this instance, Au (CN)₂ was reduced byfirst creating hydrated electrons from the radiolysis of water andutilizing the hydrated electrons to reduce the gold ions, namely:

e_(aq) ⁻+Au(CN)₂→Au⁰+2CN⁻(Henglein, 1998).

It is known that the surface of the gold nanoparticle may be furtherprocessed by adding chemical species, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG),or other specific ligands. In this regard, extensive work has occurredin therapies for cancer where PEG-coated gold nanoparticles are inducedby a variety of techniques to migrate to a cancer or tumor site and arethereafter irradiated with, for example, infrared or radio waves to heatand destroy cancer cells (Panyala, 2009). Surface PEGylation is alsoknown to increase the blood half-life of nanoparticles; andpolysorbate-80 can improve the blood-brain-barrier transport ofnanoparticles (Teixido & Giralt, 2008).

Colloidal Gold by Underwater Arcing

Also known in the art are methods for making gold nanoparticles by anunderwater arcing method. This method was first pioneered by Bredig inthe late 1800's. Bredig used a direct current to create an underwaterarc between two wires. Bredig used a current of 5-10 amps and a voltageof 30-110 volts. In some cases, Bredig also used 0.001N sodium hydroxideinstead of pure water. Bredig thought of his process as pulverizing themetallic electrodes. Bredig obtained hydrosols of gold in this manner(Weiser, pp. 9-17, 45-46, 1933).

Svedberg later improved on Bredig's process by utilizing a highfrequency arc instead of the direct current arc of Bredig. Svedbergpointed out that the arc permits the formation of a metal gas whichsubsequently condenses into particles of colloidal dimensions. Muchdebate surrounded the exact mechanisms of the process; howevervaporization of the metal was viewed as being important (Weiser, pp.9-17, 45-46, 1933).

The parameters of greatest interest to Svedberg in controlling theelectric pulverization process to form colloid solutions were, a) therate of pulverization, b) the ratio of sediment to total metaldispersed, c) the extent of decomposition of the medium, and d) thedependence of (a)-(c) on the current characteristics. The amount ofsediment achieved by the Bredig and Svedberg processes ranged from about30% to about 50%, under a variety of processing conditions (Kraemer,1924).

More recent work with the Bredig process on palladium was performed byMucalo, et al. These investigators tested the theory of whether themetallic particles in Bredig sols were “impure” due to impurities fromthe concurrent electrolyte decomposition of the electrolyte and oxidizedmaterial thought to form during arcing (Mucalo, 2001). Theseinvestigators utilized modern surface analytical techniques (i.e., XPS,or “x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy”) to determine differences insurface speciation as a function of pH. At lower pH's a grey-blackunstable material was produced. At higher pH's, the sol was more stable,but still completely aggregated within 1-2 weeks. Nanoparticles producedconsisted of irregularly-shaped spheres. While materials produced atboth higher and lower pH's were mostly metallic in character, thesurface characteristics of these unstable colloids were different. Thehigher pH Bredig sols resulted in a thicker outer oxide layer on theunstable nanoparticles (Mucalo, 2001).

The methods of Bredig and Svedberg were subsequently improved on byothers to result in a variety of underwater arc-based methods. However,common to each of these underwater arcing methods is the result ofsomewhat irregularly-shaped metallic-based spheres. In this regard, thenanoparticles produced by the Bredig or Svedberg processes arenon-specific, spherical-like shapes, indicative of a metal-basedvaporization followed by rapid quench methods, the nanoparticles beingcoated with (and/or containing) varying amounts of different oxide-basedmaterials.

Toxicology of Colloidal Gold Nanoparticles

A review on the toxicology of gold nanoparticles was performed byJohnston, et al. and reported in 2010. There were four intravenousexposure routes summarized for both mice and rats and an intratrachealapproach for rats. Regarding the four intravenous studies summarized,Johnston, et al. reported that tissue sites of accumulation, in order ofquantity were liver-spleen in 3 of 4 tests and liver-lung in 1 of 4tests (i.e., highest gold nanoparticle accumulation was in the liver).Specifically, the four intravenous tests reported by Johnston et al. aresummarized below (Johnston, 2010).

The tissue distribution of metal particles, following exposure via avariety of routes (Johnston, et al., 2010).

Tissue sites of accumulation Size Exposure (in order of Paper NP (nm)Route quantity) Conclusion Cho, Gold 13 Intravenous Liver, spleen, Theprimary sites of et al., 2009 (PEG (mice) kidney, lung, accumulation arethe coated) brain liver and spleen, NP's accumulate within macrophagesDe Jong, Gold 10, Intravenous Liver, spleen, Wider organ distribution etal., 2008 50, (rats) lungs, kidneys, of smaller particles, 100, heart,brain, whereas larger particles 250 thymus, testis were restricted tothe liver and spleen Semmler-Behnke, Gold 4 Intravenous Liver, spleen,Small particles et al., 2008 and (rats) kidneys, skin, demonstrate amore 18 GIT, heart widespread accumulation/distribution Sonavane, Gold10, Intravenous Liver, lung, Wider tissue distribution et al., 2008b 50,(mice) kidneys, spleen, for smaller particles — 100, brain 15- and 50-nmNP's 250 accumulated within the

Johnston, et al. were critical of a variety of uncertainties introducedinto a number of the reviewed toxicology studies including that certainconclusions (made by others) regarding toxicity as a function of onlyparticle size were not accurate. Specifically, Johnston, et al. reportedthat Pan et al (in 2007) concluded that 1.4 nm gold nanoparticles werethe most toxic gold nanoparticles tested out of a range of nanoparticlesizes, including 1.2 nm diameter gold nanoparticles. While Pan, et al.believed there to be a difference in toxicity profile as a function ofsize, Johnston, et al. noted that the 1.4 nm particles were made by theinvestigators themselves and the 1.2 nm particles were obtained from anoutside company (thus suggesting that there were different surfacecharacteristics of both nanoparticles). Johnston, et al. concluded that“agglomerations states or surface chemistry” were the reason(s) fordifferential performance with both being “known to alter particlebehavior and toxicity” (Johnston, 2010).

Johnston, et al. also concluded that experimental setup influencestoxicity results; and that the tissue distribution of gold nanoparticlesin an organism is a function of the exposure route, as well as size,shape and surface chemistry of nanoparticles. Additionally, theyobserved that the liver appears to be the primary site of accumulationand speculated that result is due to the presence of macrophages in theliver. They also noted that nanoparticle uptake is probably a result ofthe type and extent of protein binding occurring on the surface of thenanoparticles (e.g., a protein corona) which is a function of the size,shape and surface coating on the nanoparticles. In particular, theynoted that the ability of a variety of cell types to internalizenanoparticles by, for example, endocytosis. This endocytosis mechanismwhich appeared to be a function of particle shape, as well as particlesurface characteristics, such as protein absorption on the surfacethereof. In other words, biological uptake is a function of shape, sizeand charge; and is also very serum-dependent (Johnston, 2010).

Efficacy of Colloidal Gold

Work by Abraham and Himmel (reported in 1997) disclosed the use ofcolloidal gold in the treatment of 10 patients who previously did notrespond to a variety of other gold-based treatments. The colloidal goldused in the study was made by a variation of the standard “citratemethod” of Maclagan and Frens with “several proprietary modifications.”Maltodextrins (Food Grade) were used at a concentration of 2.5% toprevent auto aggregation of the gold particles (Abraham, 2008). Thesizes of the colloid particles produced were reported as being less than20 nm, as confirmed by a process of passing the colloidal suspensionthrough a 20 nm filter (i.e, produced by Whatman Anotop). Subsequent TEMwork caused Abraham to conclude that 99% of the particles produced wereless than 10 nm. Sodium benzoate was also added (Abraham, 2008).

The colloidal gold suspension resulted in a 1,000 mg/L (i.e., 1,000 pm)concentration. The dosage level provided to each patient varied between30 mg/day and 60 mg/day, with most dosages being 30 mg/day, for a24-week period. These dosages were taken orally. Table 1 therein liststhe patient's sex, age and previous conditions and/or treatments. Thearticle concludes that 9 of the 10 patients “improved markedly by 24weeks of intervention” (Abraham & Himmel, 1997). Abraham also reported alowering of certain cytokine concentrations including IL-6 and TNF(Abraham, 2008).

Work on collagen-induced arthritis in rats by Tsai concluded thatnanogold particles bound to the protein VEGF and that such binding wasthe reason for an improved clinical performance of rats that wereintra-articularly injected with colloidal gold. In this case, theinjected colloidal gold was prepared by the standard chemical reductionmethod of utilizing a gold chloroaurate reduced with sodium citrate.Tsai, et al. reported that the gold nanoparticles were spherical havingan approximate diameter of 13 nm, as measured by transmission electronmicroscopy. The concentration of the intra-articular solution was 180m/ml (i.e., 180 ppm). The intra-articular injection was made one time,either on day 7 or day 10 after induction of CIA (Tsai, 2007).

Brown, et al. disclosed in 2007 that a standard colloidal goldpreparation (referred to as Tyndall's purple) was prepared by standardchemical reduction methods, namely, the reduction of chloroauric acidwith sodium citrate. The average particle size of the gold nanoparticlesproduced was 27+/−3 nm. This colloidal gold was dispersed in isotonicsorbitol and injected by a parenteral and subcutaneous approach intorats that experienced experimentally induced arthritis. The doseinjected was at a concentration of 3.3 m/kg. Brown, et al. alsodisclosed that colloidal gold, when administered subcutaneously, wasapproximately 1,000 times more effective than the comparative sodiumaurothiomalate. Brown, et al. also disclosed that the colloidal gold wasineffective when given orally and concluded that the ineffectiveness wasdue to coagulation of the gold nanoparticles in the presence of gastricjuice and sodium chloride (Brown, 2007).

Brown, et al. reviewed alternative preparation methods for colloidalgold having a variety of sizes and shapes (Brown, 2008). Brown, et al.disclosed in Table 2 a variety of properties associated with “nano-goldhydrosol.” The authors concluded that the studies conducted by them (andreviewed by them) “suggest that gold nanoparticle (Au0)-based drugs mayplay a role in future clinical therapies targeted to regulatingmacrophages” (Brown, 2008).

The references cited throughout the “Background of the Invention” arelisted below in detail.

-   Abraham, G. E. & Himmel, P. B. (1997). Management of rheumatoid    arthritis: rationale for the use of colloidal metallic gold. J.    Nutr. Environ Med. 7, 295-305.-   Abraham, G. E. (2008). Clinical Applications of Gold and Silver    Nanocolloids. Original Internist, 132-157.-   Agata, N., et al. (2000). Suppression of type II collagen-induced    arthritis by a new Isocoumarin, NM-3. Res Commun Mol Pathol    Pharmacol., 108 (5-6), 297-309.-   Brown, C. L., Whitehouse, M. W., Tiekink, E. R. T., & Bushell G. R.    (2008). Colloidal metallic gold is not bio-inert.    Inflammopharmacology, 16, 133-137.-   Brown, C. L., et al. (2007). Nanogold-pharmaceutics (i) The use of    colloidal gold to treat experimentally-induced arthritis in rat    models; (ii)Characterization of the gold in Swarna bhasma, a    microparticulate used in traditional Indian medicine. Gold Bulletin,    2007, 40 (3), 245-250.-   Cheriathundam, E., & Alvares, A. (1996). Species differences in the    renal toxicity of the antiarthritic drug, gold sodium thiomalate. J    Biochem Tox , 11(4), 175-81.-   Dabrowiak, J. (2009). Gold Complexes for Treating Arthritis Cancer    and Other Diseases. In J. Dabrowiak, Metals in Medicine (pp.    191-217). Chichester UK: John Wiley and Sons.-   Daniel, M. C. & Astruc, D. (2004). Gold Nanoparticles: Assembly,    Supramolecular Chemistry, Quantum-Size-Related Properties, and    Applications toward Biology, Catalysis, and Nanotechnology. Chem.    Rev., 104, 293-346.-   Eisler, Ronald. Biochemical, Health, and Ecotoxicological    Perspectives on Gold and Gold Mining. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2004.-   Faraday, M. (1857). The Bakerian lecture: Experimental relations of    gold (and other metals) to light. Philosoph. Trans. R. Soc. London,    147, 145-181.-   Henglein, A. & Meisel, D. (1998). Radiolytic Control of the Size of    Colloidal Gold Nanoparticles. Langmuir, 14, 7392-7396.-   Ho, S., & Tiekink, E. (2005). Gold beased metalotherapeutics; Use    and Potential. In M. Gielen, & E. Tiekink, Metallotherapeutic Drugs    and Metal-Based Diagnostic Agents (pp. 507-527). Chictester: JH    Wiley and Sons.-   Johnston, H. J., Hutchinson, G., Christensen, F. M., Peters, S.,    Hankin, S. & Stone, V. (2010). A review of the in vivo and in vitro    toxicity of silver and gold particulates: Particle attributes and    biological mechanisms responsible for the observed toxicity.    Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 40 (4), 328-346.-   Kean, W., & Anastassiades, T. (1979). Long term chrysotherapy;    incidence of toxicity and efficacy during sequntial time periods.    Arthritis Rheum , 22(5), 495-501.-   Kean, W., & Kean, I. (2008). The clinical Pharmacology of Gold.    Immunopharmacology, 16(3), 112-25.-   Kimling, J., Maier, M., Okenve, B., Kotaidis, V., Ballot, H. &    Plech, A. (2006). Turkevich Method for Gold Nanoparticle Synthesis    Revisited. J. Phys. Chem. B, 110, 15700-15707.-   Kraemer, E. O. & Svedberg, T. (1924). Formation of Colloid Solutions    by Electrical Pulverization in the High-Frequency Alternating    Current Arc. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 46 (9),    1980-1991.-   Leonard, T. B., Graichen, M. E., Dahm, L. J., & Dent, J. G. (1986).    Effects of the Chryosotherapeutic Agents Auranofin and Gold Sodium    Thiomalate on Hepatic and Renal Drug Metabolism and Heme Metabolism.    Biochemical Pharmacology, 35, (18), 3057-3063.-   Mucalo, M. R. & Bullen, C. R. (2001). Electric arc generated    (Bredig) palladium nanoparticles: Surface analysis by X-ray    photoelectron spectroscopy for samples prepared at different pH.    Journal of Materials Science Letters, 20, 1853-1856.-   Panyala, N. G., Pena-Mendez, E.M., & Havel, J. (2009). Gold and    nano-gold in medicine: overview, toxicology and perspectives.    Journal of Applied Biomedicine, 7, 75-91.-   Payne, B., & Arena, E. (1978). The subacute and chronic toxicity of    SK&F 36914 and SK&F D-39162 in dogs. Vet Path , Suppl 5, 9-12.-   Payne, B., & Arena, E. (1978). The subacute and chronic toxicity of    SK&F 36914, SK&F D-39162 and gold sodium thiomalate in rats. Vet    Path Suppl , 15(5), 13-22.-   Sadler, P. J. (1976). The biological chemistry of gold: a    metallo-drug and heavy-atom label with variable valency, Structure    Bonding, 29,171-215.-   Shaw, C. F., III. (1999a). Gold complexes with anti-arthritic,    anti-tumour and anti-HIV activity, in Uses of Inorganic Chemistry in    Medicine, N. C. Farrell, (Ed.), Royal Society of Chemistry,    Cambridge, UK, 26-57.-   Shaw, C. F., III. (1999b). The biochemistry of gold, in Gold:    Progress in Chemistry, Biochemistgry and Technology, H. Schmidbaur,    (Ed.), John Wiley & Sons, New York, 260-308.-   Sakai, T., Enomoto, H., Torigoe, K., Kakai, H. & Abe, M. (2008).    Surfactant-and reducer-free synthesis of gold nanoparticles in    aqueous solutions. Colloids and Surface A: Physiocochemical and    Engineering Aspects, 18-26.-   Sperling, R. A., Gil, P. R., Zhang, F., Zanella, M., & Parak, W. J.    (2008). Biological applications of gold nanoparticles. Chem. Soc.    Rev, 37, 1896-1908.-   Sweeney, S. F., Woehrle, G. H. & Hutchison, J.E. (2006). Rapid    Purification and Size Separation of Gold Nanoparticles via    Diafiltration. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 128, 3190-3197.-   Szabo, K., DiFebbo, M., & Phelan, D. (1978). The effects of    gold-containing compounds on pregnant rabbits and their fetuses. Vet    Path , Suppl 5, 95-105.-   Szabo, K., Guerriero, F., & Kang, Y. (1978). The effects of gold    containing compounds on pregnant rats and their fetuses. Vet Path ,    5, 89-86.-   Tao, A.R., Habas, S. & Yang Peidong. (2008). Shape Control of    Colloid Metal Nanocrystals. Small, 4 (3), 310-325.-   Teixido, M. & Giralt, E. (2008). The role of peptides in blood-brain    barrier nanotechnology. J. Pept. Sci., 14, 163-173.-   Tsai, C., Shiau, A., Chen, S., Chen, Y., Cheng, P., Chang, M., et    al. (2007). Amelioration of collagen-induced arthritis in rats by    nanogold. Arthritis Rheum , 56(2), 544-54.-   Ueda, S. (1998). Nephrotoxicity of gold salts, D-penicillamine, and    allopurinol, in Clincial Nephrotoxins: Renal Injury from Drugs and    Chemicals, M. E. De Broe, G. A. Porter, W. M. Bennett, and G. A.    Verpooten, (eds.), Kluwer Dordrecht, 223-238.-   USFDA (2005). Guidance for Industry Estimating the Maximum Safe    Starting Dose in Initial Clinical Trials for Therapeutics in Adult    Healthy Volunteers. Pharmacology and Toxicology.-   Walz, D., DiMartino, M., Intocca, A., & Flanagan, T. (1983).    Biologic actions and pharmacokinetic studies of Auranofin®. Am J    Med, 759(6A).-   Wang, C. H., et al. (2007). Aqueous gold nanosols stabilized by    electrostatic protection generated by X-ray irradiation assisted    radical reduction. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 106, 323-329.-   Weiser, H. B. Inorganic Colloid Chemistry—Volume I: The Colloidal    Elements. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1933.-   Whyman, R. (1996). Gold Nanoparticles A Renaissance in Gold    Chemistry. Gold Bulletin, 29(1), 11-15.-   Yuan, H., Cai, R. X. & Pang, D. W. (2003). A Simple Approach to    Control the Growth of Non-spherical Gold Nanoparticles. Chinese    Chemical Letters, 14 (11), 1163-1166.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

New gold nanocrystals are provided that have nanocrystalline surfacesthat are substantially free (as defined herein) from organic or otherimpurities or films. Specifically, the surfaces are “clean” relative tothose made using chemical reduction processes that require chemicalreductants and/or surfactants to grow gold nanoparticles from gold ionsin solution. The majority of the grown gold nanocrystals have unique andidentifiable surface characteristics such as spatially extended lowindex, crystal planes {111}, {110} and/or {100} and groups of suchplanes (and their equivalents). Resulting gold nanocrystallinesuspensions or colloids have desirable pH ranges such as 4.0 -9.5, butmore typically 5.0-9.5 and zeta potential values of at least −20 mV, andmore typically at least −40 mV and even more typically at least −50 mVfor the pH ranges of interest.

The shapes and shape distributions of these gold nanocrystals preparedaccording to the manufacturing process described below include, but arenot limited to, triangles (e.g., tetrahedrons), pentagons (e.g.,pentagonal bipyramids or decahedrons), hexagons (e.g., hexagonalbipyramids, icosahedrons, octahedrons), diamond (e.g., octahedrons,various elongated bipyramids, fused tetrahedrons, side views ofbipyramids) and “others”. The shape distribution(s) of nanocrystals(i.e., grown by various embodiments set forth herein) containing theaforementioned spatially extended low index crystal planes (which formthe aforementioned shapes) and having “clean” surfaces is unique.Furthermore, the percent of tetrahedrons and/or pentagonal bipyramidsformed in the nanocrystalline suspensions is/are also unique.

Any desired average size of gold nanocrystals below 100 nm can beprovided. The most desirable crystalline size ranges include thosehaving an average crystal size or “mode” (as measured and determined byspecific techniques disclosed in detail herein and reported as “TEMaverage diameter”) that is predominantly less than 100 nm, and moretypically less than 50 nm, even more typically less than 30 nm, and inmany of the preferred embodiments disclosed herein, the mode for thenanocrystal size distribution is less than 21 nm and within an even morepreferable range of 8-18 nm.

Any concentration of gold nanoparticle can be provided according to theinvention. For example, concentrations of these gold nanocrystals can bea few parts per million (i.e., μg/ml or mg/l) up to a few hundred ppm,but are typically in the range of 2-200 ppm (i.e., 2 μg/ml-200 μg/ml)and more often in the range of 2-50 ppm (i.e., 2 μg/ml-50 μg/ml) andeven more typically 5-20 ppm (i.e., 5 μg/ml-20 μg/ml).

A novel process is provided to produce these unique gold nanocrystals.The process involves the creation of the gold nanocrystals in water. Ina preferred embodiment, the water contains an added “process enhancer”which does not significantly bind to the formed nanocrystals, but ratherfacilitates nucleation/crystal growth during theelectrochemical-stimulated growth process. The process enhancer servesimportant roles in the process including providing charged ions in theelectrochemical solution to permit the crystals to be grown.. Thesenovel electrochemical processes can occur in either a batch,semi-continuous or continuous process. These processes result incontrolled gold nanocrystalline concentrations, controlled nanocrystalsizes and controlled nanocrystal size ranges; as well as controllednanocrystal shapes and controlled nanocrystal shape distributions. Novelmanufacturing assemblies are provided to produce these goldnanocrystals.

Pharmaceutical compositions which include an effective amount of thesegold nanocrystals to treat medical conditions are also provided. Thepharmaceutical composition can provide any desired systemic dosage, as anon-limiting example, 0.1 mg/kg/day or less, or 0.05 mg/kg/day or less,or even more typically 0.025 mg/kg/day or less, or most typically 0.001mg/kg/day or less.

Since these gold nanocrystals have substantially cleaner surfaces thanthe prior available gold nanoparticles, and can desirably containspatially extended low index crystallographic planes forming novelcrystal shapes and/or crystal shape distributions, the nanocrystalsappear to be more biologically active (and may be less toxic) thanspherical-shaped nanoparticles, as well as nanoparticles (ornanocrystals) containing surface contaminants such as chemicalreductants and/or surfactants that result from traditional chemicalreduction processes. Therefore, medical treatments may be affected atlower dosages of gold.

Pharmaceutical compositions are provided that are appropriate forsystemic or topical use, including oral, intravenous, subcutaneous,intraarterial, buccal, inhalation, aerosol, propellant or otherappropriate liquid, etc, as described further in the DetailedDescription of the Invention.

These substantially surface-clean or surface-pure gold crystals can beused to treat any disorder for which gold therapy is known, whichincludes a broad range of inflammatory and autoimmune disorders as wellas certain infectious diseases (e.g., HIV, aids malaria, and Chagasdisease) and cancer. Descriptions of many of these uses are provided inthe Background of the Invention, above.

It has now been surprisingly discovered as part of this invention thatthe gold nanocrystals inhibit macrophage migration inhibitory factor(“MIF”). It is believed that this is the first disclosure of suchactivity of gold nanocrystals (or nanoparticles), and may provide ascientific basis to understand the range of medical uses for goldnanocrystals to date. It also provides a scientific basis to concludethat the gold nanocrystals will be effective against other diseaseswhich are mediated by macrophage migration inhibitory factor. Inaddition, it has been identified that these gold nanocrystals inhibitIL-6 but not IL-10. For example, because MIF and/or IL-6 is/areindicated in a large variety of conditions and/or biological signalingpathways, such finding confirms that the novel gold nanocrystals will beeffective for the treatment or prevention of diseases or conditionsresulting from pathological cellular activation, such as inflammatory(including chronic inflammatory) conditions, autoimmune conditions,hypersensitivity reactions and/or cancerous diseases or conditions.

Further, by following the inventive electrochemical manufacturingprocesses of the invention, these gold-based metallic nanocrystals canbe alloyed or combined with other metals in liquids such that gold“coatings” may occur on other metals (or other non-metal species such asSiO₂, for example) or alternatively, gold-based nanocrystals may becoated by other metals. In such cases, gold-based composites or alloysmay result within a colloid or suspension. Further, certain compositeswhich include both gold and other metals can also be formed.

Still further, gold-based metallic nanocrystals suspensions or colloidsof the present invention can be mixed or combined with othermetallic-based solutions or colloids to form novel solution or colloidmixtures (e.g., in this instance, distinct metal species can still bediscerned).

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIGS. 1 a, 1 b and 1 c show schematic cross-sectional views of a manualelectrode assembly according to the present invention.

FIGS. 2a and 2b show schematic cross-sectional views of an automaticelectrode control assembly according to the present invention.

FIGS. 3a-3d show four alternative electrode control configurations forthe electrodes 1 and 5 controlled by an automatic device 20.

FIGS. 4a-4d show four alternative electrode configurations for theelectrodes 1 and 5 which are manually controlled.

FIGS. 5a-5e show five different representative embodiments ofconfigurations for the electrode 1.

FIG. 6 shows a cross-sectional schematic view of plasmas producedutilizing one specific configuration of the electrode 1 corresponding toFIG. 5 e.

FIGS. 7a and 7b show a cross-sectional perspective view of two electrodeassemblies that can be utilized.

FIGS. 8a-8d show schematic perspective views of four different electrodeassemblies arranged with planes parallel to flow direction F.

FIGS. 9a-9d show schematic perspective views of four different electrodeassemblies arranged with planes perpendicular to flow direction F.

FIGS. 10a-10e show a variety of cross-sectional views of various troughmembers 30.

FIGS. 11a-11h show perspective views of various trough members 30, withFIGS. 11c and 11d showing an atmosphere control device 35′ and Figurelld showing a support device 34.

FIGS. 12a and 12b show various atmosphere control devices 35 for locallycontrolling the atmosphere around electrode set(s) 1 and/or 5.

FIG. 13 shows an atmosphere control device 38 for controlling atmospherearound substantially the entire trough member 30.

FIG. 14 shows a schematic cross-sectional view of a set of controldevices 20 located on a trough member 30 with a liquid 3 flowingtherethrough and into a storage container 41.

FIGS. 15a and 15b show schematic cross-sectional views of various anglesθ₁ and θ₂ for the trough members 30.

FIGS. 16a, 16b and 16c show perspective views of various control devices20 containing electrode assemblies 1 and/or 5 thereon located on top ofa trough member 30.

FIGS. 16d, 16e and 16f show AC transformer electrical wiring diagramsfor use with different embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 16g shows a schematic view of a transformer 60 and FIGS. 16h and16i show schematic representations of two sine waves in phase and out ofphase, respectively.

FIGS. 16j, 16k and 16l each show schematic views of eight electricalwiring diagrams for use with 8 sets of electrodes.

FIG. 17a shows a view of gold wires 5 a and 5 b used in the troughsection 30 b of FIG. 22a in connection with Examples 8, 9 and 10.

FIG. 17b shows a view of the gold wires 5 a and 5 b used in the troughsection 30 b of FIG. 21a in connection with Examples 5, 6 and 7.

FIG. 17c shows the electrode configuration used to make sample GB-118 inExample 16.

FIGS. 17d-17f show the devices 20 used in Examples 1-4 for suspensionsGT032, GT031, GT019 and GT033 and to make Samples GB-139, GB-141 andGB-144 in Example 16.

FIGS. 17g, 17h, 17i and 7k show wiring diagrams used to control thedevices 20 used in Examples 1-4 and 16.

FIGS. 17j and 17l show wiring diagrams used to power devices 20.

FIGS. 17m-17n show alternative designs for the devices 20. The device 20in FIG. 17n was used in Example 18.

FIGS. 18a and 18b show a first trough member 30 a wherein one or moreplasma(s) 4 is/are created. The output of this first trough member 30 aflows into a second trough member 30 b, as shown in FIGS. 19a and 19 b.

FIGS. 19a and 19b are schematics of two trough members 30 a and 30 bhaving two different electrode 5 wiring arrangements utilizing onetransformer (Examples 8 -10) and utilizing two transformers (Examples5-7).

FIGS. 20a-20h are alternatives of the apparatus shown in FIGS. 19a and19b (again having different electrode 5 wiring arrangements and/ordifferent numbers of electrodes), wherein the trough members 30 a′ and30 b′ are contiguous.

FIGS. 21a-21g show various trough members 30 b in connection with FIGS.20a-h and various Examples herein.

FIGS. 22a and 22b show trough members 30 b in connection with FIGS. 19a,19b and 20 and various Examples herein.

FIGS. 23a-23d show various schematic and perspective views of analternative trough embodiment utilized in Example 19.

FIG. 24a shows a schematic of an apparatus used in a batch methodwhereby in a first step, a plasma 4 is created to condition a fluid 3.

FIGS. 24b and 24c show a schematic of an apparatus used in a batchmethod utilizing wires 5 a and 5 b to make nanocrystals in suspension(e.g., a colloid) in association with the apparatus shown in FIG. 24aand as discussed in Examples herein.

FIG. 25a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried suspension GD-007 made according to Example 5.

FIG. 25b shows the particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals of suspension GD-007 made according toExample 5.

FIG. 25c shows dynamic light scattering data (i.e., hydrodynamic radii)for gold nanocrystals made according to Example 5.

FIG. 25d is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried suspension GD-007 made according to Example 5.

FIG. 25e shows the energy dispersive x-ray pattern of the interrogationbeam point of the nanocrystal from suspension GD-007.

FIG. 25f shows the experimental setup for collecting plasma emissiondata (e.g., irradiance).

FIG. 25g shows the Au electrode plasma irradiance from 200-300 nmgenerated by the apparatus shown in FIG. 25 f.

FIG. 25h shows the Au1 electrode plasma irradiance from 200-300 nmgenerated by the apparatus shown in FIG. 25 f.

FIG. 25i shows the Au electrode plasma irradiance from 300-400 nmgenerated by the apparatus shown in FIG. 25 f.

FIG. 25j shows the Au electrode plasma irradiance from 400-500 nmgenerated by the apparatus shown in FIG. 25f

FIG. 26a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GD-016 made according to Example 6.

FIG. 26b shows the particle size distribution from TEM measurements forthe nanocrystals made according to Example 6.

FIG. 26c shows dynamic light scattering data (i.e., hydrodynamic radii)for gold nanocrystals made according to Example 6.

FIG. 27a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GD-015 made according to Example 7.

FIG. 27b shows the particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to Example 7.

FIG. 27c shows dynamic light scattering data (i.e., hydrodynamic radii)for gold nanocrystals made according to Example 7.

FIG. 28a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-018 made according to Example 8.

FIG. 28b shows the particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to Example 8.

FIG. 28c shows dynamic light scattering data (i.e., hydrodynamic radii)for gold nanocrystals made according to Example 8.

FIG. 29a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanoparticlesfrom dried solution GB-019 made according to Example 9.

FIG. 29b shows the particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to Example 9.

FIG. 29c shows dynamic light scattering data (i.e., hydrodynamic radii)for gold nanocrystals made according to Example 9.

FIG. 30a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-020 made according to Example 10.

FIG. 30b shows particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to Example 10.

FIG. 30c shows dynamic light scattering data (i.e., hydrodynamic radii)for gold nanocrystals made according to Example 10.

FIG. 31a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution 1AC-202-7 made according to Example 11.

FIG. 31b shows the particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to Example 11.

FIG. 31c shows the dynamic light scattering data (i.e., hydrodynamicradii) for gold nanocrystals made according to Example 11.

FIG. 32a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GT-033 made according to Example 4.

FIG. 32b shows the particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to Example 14.

FIG. 32c shows dynamic light scattering data (i.e., hydrodynamic radii)for gold nanocrystals made according to Example 4.

FIG. 33a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution 1AC-261 made according to Example 12.

FIG. 33b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to Example 12.

FIG. 34a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-154 (20 Hz sine wave) made according to Example13.

FIG. 34b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to Example 13.

FIG. 35a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-157 (40 hz sinewave) made according to Examplel3.

FIG. 35b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to Example GB-157.

FIG. 36a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-159 (60 Hz sine wave) made according to Example13.

FIG. 36b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-159.

FIG. 37a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-161 (80 Hz sine wave) made according to Example13.

FIG. 37b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-161.

FIG. 38a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-173 (100Hz sine wave) made according to Example13.

FIG. 38b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-173.

FIG. 39a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-156 (300 Hz sine wave) made according to Example13.

FIG. 39b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-156.

FIG. 40 is a schematic diagram of the electrical setup used to generatethe nanocrystals in solutions GB-166, GB-165, GB-162, GB-163 and GB-164.

FIG. 41 shows a schematic of the electrical wave forms utilized insolutions GB-166, GB-165 and GB-162.

FIG. 42a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-166 (60 Hz sine wave) made according to Example14

FIG. 42b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-166.

FIG. 43a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-165 (60Hz square wave) made according to Example14.

FIG. 43b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-165.

FIG. 44a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-162 (60 Hz triangle wave) made according toExample 14.

FIG. 44b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-162.

FIG. 45 is a schematic of the triangular-shaped electrical wave formsutilized to generate samples in accordance with GB-163 and GB-164.

FIG. 46a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-163 (max duty cycle triangle wave) made accordingto Example 15.

FIG. 46b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-163.

FIG. 47a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-164 (min duty cycle triangle wave) made accordingto Example 15.

FIG. 47b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-164.

FIG. 48a 1 is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried suspension GB-134 made according to Example 16.

FIG. 48a 2 is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried suspension GB-134 made according to Example 16.

FIG. 48b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to Example 16.

FIG. 48c shows dynamic light scattering data (i.e., hydrodynamic radii)for gold nanocrystals made according to Example 16.

FIGS. 49a 1, a 2-FIGS. 61a 1, a 2 show two representative TEMphotomicrographs for dried samples GB-098, GB-113, GB-118, GB-120,GB-123, GB-139, GB-141, GB-144, GB-079, GB-089, GB-062, GB-076 andGB-077, respectively, made according to Example 16.

FIGS. 49b-61b show the particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals corresponding to dried samples GB-098,GB-113, GB-118, GB-120, GB-123, GB-139, GB-141, GB-144, GB-079, GB-089,GB-062, GB-076 and GB-077, respectively, made according to Example 16.

FIGS. 49c-61c show dynamic light scattering data (i.e., hydrodynamicradii) for gold nanocrystals corresponding to samples GB-098, GB-113,GB-118, GB-120, GB-123, GB-139, GB-141, GB-144, GB-079, GB-089, GB-062,GB-076 and GB-077, respectively, made according to Example 16; and FIG.54d shows current as a function of time for GB-139 made in accordancewith Example 16.

FIGS. 54d, 55d and 56d show measured current (in amps) as a function ofprocess time for the samples GB-139, GB-141 and GB-144 made according toExample 16.

FIG. 61d shows the UV-Vis spectral patterns of each of the 14suspensions/colloids made according to Example 16 (i.e., GB-098, GB-113and GB-118); (GB-120 and GB-123); (GB-139); (GB-141 and GB-144);(GB-079, GB-089 and GB-062); and (GB-076 and GB-077) over aninterrogating wavelength range of about 250 nm-750 nm.

FIG. 61e shows the UV-Vis spectral patterns for each of the 14suspensions over an interrogating wavelength range of about 435 nm-635nm.

FIG. 62a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-151 made according to Example 18.

FIG. 62b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-151.

FIG. 63a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-188 made according to Example 18.

FIG. 63b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-188.

FIG. 64a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-175 made according to Example 18.

FIG. 64b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-175.

FIG. 65a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-177 made according to Example 18.

FIG. 65b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-177.

FIG. 66a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-176 made according to Example 18.

FIG. 66b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-176.

FIG. 67a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-189 made according to Example 18.

FIG. 67b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-189.

FIG. 68a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-194 made according to Example 18.

FIG. 68b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-194.

FIG. 69a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-195 made according to Example 18.

FIG. 69b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-195.

FIG. 70a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-196 made according to Example 18.

FIG. 70b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-196.

FIG. 71a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-198 made according to Example 18.

FIG. 71b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-198.

FIG. 72a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanocrystalsfrom dried solution GB-199 made according to Example 18.

FIG. 72b shows a particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to GB-199.

FIG. 72c shows the UV-Vis spectral patterns of each of the 11suspensions/colloids made according to Example 18 (i.e., GB-151, GB-188,GB-175, GB-177, GB-176, GB-189, GB-194, GB-195, GB-196, GB-198 andGB-199) over an interrogating wavelength range of about 250 nm-750 nm.

FIG. 72d shows the UV-Vis spectral patterns for each of the 11suspensions over an interrogating wavelength range of about 435 nm-635nm.

FIGS. 73a 1 and FIG. 73a 2 show two representative TEM photomicrographsfor sample Aurora-020.

FIG. 73b shows the particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanoparticles corresponding to dried sampleAurora-020.

FIG. 73c shows dynamic light scattering data (i.e., hydrodynamic radii)for gold nanoparticles corresponding to sample Aurora-020.

FIGS. 74a 1, a2-FIGS. 80a 1, a2 show two representative TEMphotomicrographs for dried samples GA-002, GA-003, GA-004, GA-005,GA-009, GA-011 and GA-013, respectively.

FIGS. 74b-80b show the particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals corresponding to dried samples GA-002,GA-003, GA-004, GA-005, GA-009, GA-011 and GA-013, respectively.

FIGS. 74c-80c show dynamic light scattering data (i.e., hydrodynamicradii) for gold nanocrystals corresponding to samples GA-002, GA-003,GA-004, GA-005, GA-009, GA-011 and GA-013, respectively.

FIG. 81a is a perspective view of a comparative Bredig-arc apparatusutilized to make representative/comparative gold nanoparticles.

FIG. 81b is a cross-sectional view of a comparative Bredig-arc apparatusutilized to make representative/comparative gold nanoparticles.

FIG. 82a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of gold nanoparticlesfrom dried solution ARCG-05made according to Example 21.

FIG. 82b is a particle size distribution histogram from TEM measurementsfor the nanoparticles made according to ARCG-05.

FIGS. 83a-90a show representative TEM photomicrographs for eightcomparative commercially available colloidal gold products discussed inExample 22.

FIGS. 83b-90b shows the particle size distribution histograms from TEMmeasurements for the nanoparticles corresponding to the eightcomparative commercially available colloidal gold products discussed inExample 22.

FIG. 90c shows the UV-Vis spectral patterns of each of the 7 of the 8commercially available gold nanoparticle suspensions discussed in FIG.22a (Utopia Gold, SNG911219, Nanopartz, Nanocomposix 15 nm, Nanocomposix10 nm, Harmonic Gold and MesoGold) over an interrogating wavelengthrange of about 250 nm-750 nm.

FIG. 90d shows the UV-Vis spectral patterns for 7 of the 8 commerciallyavailable gold nanoparticle suspensions discussed in FIG. 22a (UtopiaGold, SNG911219, Nanopartz, Nanocomposix 15 nm, Nanocomposix 10 nm,Harmonic Gold and MesoGold) over an interrogating wavelength range ofabout 435 nm-635 nm.

FIG. 91 is a graph showing Zeta Potentials.

FIG. 92 is a graph showing conductivity.

FIG. 93 shows dynamic light scattering data (i.e., hydrodynamic radii)for the nanocrystal suspension GD-006 made according to Example 23a.

FIGS. 94a-94d show graphically amounts of four different cytokinesproduced by human PBMCs when antagonized by LPS in the presence ofdifferent amounts of GB-079.

FIG. 95 is a graph showing the results from a collagen-induced arthritis(“CIA”) model in mice showing control water, two experimental mixtures(i.e., GT-033 and GD-007) and contrasting the measured experimentalresults with results from a typical steroid model (i.e., not measured inthis model).

FIGS. 96a-96d show representative photomicrographs of cross sections ofmouse paw joints at various stages of arthritis.

FIGS. 97a-97e show representative photomicrographs of cross sections ofmouse paw joints at various stages of arthritis.

FIG. 98 is a graph showing results from an Experimental Auto-ImmuneEncephalitis (“EAE”) model in Biozzi mice showing the percent of animalsdeveloping symptoms in the water Control Group 1 versus the GB-056Treatment Group 2.

FIG. 99 is a graph showing results from an Experimental Auto-ImmuneEncephalitis (“EAE”) model in Biozzi mice showing the average clinicaldisease score for the water Control Group 1 versus the GB-056 TreatmentGroup 2.

FIGS. 100a-e are representative TEM photomicrographs of goldnanocrystals from dried solution GB-056 made in accordance with Example17.

FIG. 101a shows the particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the gold nanocrystals made according to Example 17.

FIG. 101b shows dynamic light scattering data (i.e., hydrodynamic radii)for gold nanocrystals made according to Example 17.

FIGS. 102a -d are representative TEM photomicrographs of the same goldnanocrystals from dried solution GB-056 made in accordance with Example17 after serving as the test compound for 24 hours in the EAE test ofExample 26.

FIG. 103a shows the particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the gold nanocrystals made according to Example 17after serving as the test compound for 24 hours in the EAE test ofExample 26.

FIG. 103b shows dynamic light scattering data (i.e., hydrodynamicradii)for gold nanocrystals made according to Example 17 after servingas the test compound for 24 hours in the EAE test of Example 26.

FIGS. 104a-c are representative TEM photomicrographs of the same goldnanoparticles from dried solution GB-056 made in accordance with Example17 after serving as the test compound for 24 hours in the EAE test ofExample 26.

FIG. 105a shows the particle size distribution histogram from TEMmeasurements for the nanocrystals made according to Example 17 afterserving as the test compound for 24 hours in the EAE test of Example 26.

FIG. 105b shows dynamic light scattering data for the nanocrystals madeaccording to Example 17 from Day 4-Day 5.

FIG. 106 shows the average weight gain of all mice over a long-termstudy according to Example 27.

FIG. 107 shows the average amount of treatment and control liquidsconsumed for all mice over a long-term study according to Example 27.

FIG. 108 shows the average weight gain of all mice over a 35-day studyaccording to Example 28.

FIG. 109 shows the average amount of treatment and control liquidsconsumed for all mice over a 35-day study according to Example 28.

FIG. 110 shows the amount of gold found in the feces of mice accordingto Example 28.

FIG. 111 shows the amount of gold found in the urine of mice accordingto Example 28.

FIG. 112 shows the amount of gold found in the organs and blood of miceaccording to Example 28.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

I. Novel Gold Nanocrystals

New gold nanocrystals are provided that have nanocrystalline surfacesthat are substantially free from organic or other impurities or films.Specifically, the surfaces are “clean” relative to those made usingchemical reduction processes that require chemical reductants and/orsurfactants to form gold nanoparticles from gold ions in solution. Thenew gold nanocrystals are produced via novel manufacturing procedures,described in detail herein. The new manufacturing procedures avoid theprior use of added chemical reductants and/or surfactants (e.g., organiccompounds) or other agents which are typically carried along in, or on,the particles or are coated on the surface of the chemically reducedparticles; or the reductants are subsequently stripped or removed usingundesirable processes which themselves affect the particle.

In a preferred embodiment, the process involves the nucleation andgrowth of the gold nanocrystals in water which contains a “processenhancer” or “processing enhancer” (typically an inorganic material orcarbonate or such) which does not significantly bind to the formednanocrystals, but rather facilitates nucleation/growth duringelectrochemical-stimulated growth process. The process enhancer servesimportant roles in the process including providing charged ions in theelectrochemical solution to permit the crystals to be grown. The processenhancer is critically a compound(s) which remains in solution, and/ordoes not form a coating (e.g., an organic coating), and/or does notadversely affect the formed nanocrystals or the formed suspension(s),and/or is destroyed, evaporated, or is otherwise lost during theelectrochemical process. A preferred process enhancer is sodiumbicarbonate. Examples of other process enhancers are sodium carbonate,potassium bicarbonate, potassium carbonate, trisodium phosphate,disodium phosphate, monosodium phosphate, potassium phosphates or othersalts of carbonic acid or the like. Further process enhancers may besalts, including sodium or potassium, of bisulfite or sulfite. Stillother process enhancers to make gold nanocrystals for medicalapplications under certain conditions may be other salts, includingsodium or potassium, or any material that assists in the electrochemicalgrowth processes described herein; which is not substantiallyincorporated into or onto the surface of the gold nanocrystals; and doesnot impart toxicity to the nanocrystals or to the suspension containingthe nanocrystals.

Desirable concentration ranges for the processing enhancer includetypically 0.01-20 grams/gallon (0.0026-2.1730 mg/ml), more typically,0.1-7.5 grams/gallon (0.0264-1.9813 mg/ml) and most typically, 0.5-2.0grams/gallon (0.13210-0.5283 mg/ml).

Because the grown gold nanocrystals have “bare” or “clean” surfaces ofgold metal (e.g., in the zero-oxidation state) the surfaces are highlyreactive or are highly biocatalytic (as well as highly bioavailable).The nanocrystals are essentially surrounded by a water jacket. Thesefeatures provide increased efficacy in vivo relative to nanoparticlesurfaces that contain, for example, organic material present fromreduction chemistry processes. The “clean” surfaces may also reduce thetoxicity of the nanocrystals, over those nanoparticles that containcoated or “dressed” surfaces. The increased efficacy of these “clean”gold nanocrystals may provide an increased therapeutic index via a lowerdose needed to achieve a therapeutic effect. A comparative mouse modelexample herein (Example 25) compares an inventive gold nanocrystalsuspension to Auranofin, a commercially available and FDA-approved golddrug, This Example shows that these novel gold nanocrystals, in mice,are at least 5 times more active than Auranofin in the well-acceptedcollagen induced arthritis model of inflammation in rheumatoidarthritis.

Specifically, the comparative mouse model (Example 25) compares the doselevels demonstrating efficacy using an inventive crystal suspension tothe dose levels demonstrating efficacy using Auranofin, a commerciallyavailable and FDA-approved gold-based drug, Example 25 shows that thesenovel gold nanocrystals, in mice, achieve efficacy at a dose level atleast 17 times lower than the effective dose level of Auranofin in thewell accepted collagen induced arthritis model of inflammation in themouse, and 5 times lower than the gold content contained in theeffective dose level of Auranofin. Thus, comparing relative efficacylevels of the novel gold nanocrystal to those of the gold-based drugAuranofin, and to only the gold content of those of the Auranofin, therelative potency of the novel gold nanocrystals is 17 times greater thanAuranofin and 5 times greater than the gold contained in the Auranofin.

This potency advantage means that treatment efficacy can be achieved ata much lower dose level (17× lower dose than Auranofin, 5× lower dosethan the gold contained in Auranofin), or alternatively, thatpotentially much greater efficacy can be achieved at equivalent doselevels.

There are other important advantages of the novel nanocrystals in twoother dimensions: relative toxicity, and relative speed of onset ofbenefits. With respect to both observed relative toxicity, and observedrelative speed of onset of benefits, in an animal model, the novel goldnanocrystals are significantly different and significantly outperformAuranofin, the only orally administrated, FDA-approved gold-basedpharmaceutical product in the prior art.

In a preferred embodiment, the nanocrystals are not dried before use butinstead used in the liquid they were formed in (i.e., forming asuspension) or a concentrate or a reconstituted concentrate thereof. Itappears that completely removing these crystals from their suspension(e.g., completely drying) may, in certain cases, affect the surfaceproperties of the crystals, (e.g., partial oxidation may occur) and/ormay affect the ability to rehydrate the crystals by, for example,altering the initially formed water jacket. This suggests that it may beoptimal to use sterile pharmaceutical grade water (i.e., USP) and theaforementioned process enhancers in the manufacturing processes.

The gold nanocrystals made according to this invention can also be usedfor industrial applications where gold reactivity is important (e.g.,catalytic and/or electrochemical processes) but pharmaceutical gradeproducts are not required. When prepared for non-pharmaceutical uses,the gold nanocrystals can be made in a wider variety of solvents andwith a wider variety of process enhancers, depending on the application.

According to the processes herein, the gold nanocrystals can be grown ina manner that provides unique and identifiable surface characteristicssuch as spatially extended low index, crystal planes {111}, {110} and/or{100} and groups of such planes (and their equivalents). The shapes ofthe gold nanocrystals prepared according to the processes describedherein include, but are not limited to, triangles (e.g., tetrahedrons),pentagons (e.g., pentagonal bipyramids or decahedrons), hexagons (e.g.,hexagonal bipyramids, icosahedrons, octahedrons), diamond (e.g.,octahedrons, various elongated bipyramids, fused tetrahedrons, sideviews of bipyramids) and “others”. The percent of nanocrystals (i.e.,grown by various embodiments set forth herein) containing theaforementioned spatially extended low index crystal planes and having“clean” surfaces is another novel feature of the invention. Furthermore,the percent of tetrahedrons and/or pentagonal bipyramids formed orpresent in the nanocrystalline suspensions is/are also unique.

In a preferred embodiment the percent of pentagonal bipyramids is atleast about 5%, or is in a range of about 5%-35%, and more typically atleast about 10%, or is in a range of about 10% -35%, and even moretypically, at least about 15%, or is in a range of about 15%-35%, andstill more typically, at least about 25%, and in some cases at leastabout 30%.

In another preferred embodiment the percent of tetrahedrons is at least5%, or is in a range of about 5%-35%, and more typically at least about10%, or is in a range of about 10%-35%, and even more typically, atleast about 15%, or is in a range of about 15%-35%, and still moretypically, at least about 25%, and in some cases at least about 30%.

Still further, the combination of pentagonal bipyramids and tetrahedronsis at least about 15%, or is in a range of about 15%-50%, and moretypically at least about 20%, or is in a range of about 20%-50%, andeven more typically, at least about 30%, or is in a range of about30%-50%, and still more typically, at least about 35%, and in some casesat least about 45%.

Still further, the combination of pentagonal bipyramids, tetrahedrons,octahedrons and hexagonal is at least about 50%, or is in a range ofabout 50%-85%, and more typically at least about 60%, or is in a rangeof about 60%-85%, and even more typically, at least about 70%, or is ina range of about 70%-85%, and still more typically, at least about 70%,and in some cases at least about 80%.

Any desired average size of gold nanocrystals below 100 nm can beprovided. The most desirable crystalline size ranges include thosehaving an average crystal size or “mode” (as measured and determined byspecific techniques disclosed in detail herein and reported as “TEMaverage diameter”) that is predominantly less than 100 nm, and moretypically less than 50 nm, even more typically less than 30 nm, and inmany of the preferred embodiments disclosed herein, the mode for thenanocrystal size distribution is less than 21 nm and within an even morepreferable range of 8-18 nm.

Resulting gold nanocrystalline suspensions or colloids can be providedthat have or are adjusted to have target pH ranges. When prepared with,for example, a sodium bicarbonate process enhancer, in the amountsdisclosed in detail herein, the pH range is typically 8-9, which can beadjusted as desired.

The nature and/or amount of the surface change (i.e., positive ornegative) on formed nanoparticles or nanocrystals can have a largeinfluence on the behavior and/or effects of the nanoparticle/suspensionor colloid. For example, protein coronas such as albumin coronas formedin vivo can be influenced by surface charge or surface characteristicsof a nanoparticle. Such surface charges are commonly referred to as“zeta potential”. It is known that the larger the zeta potential (eitherpositive or negative), the greater the stability of the nanoparticles inthe solution (i.e., the suspension is more stable). By controlling thenature and/or amount of the surface charges of formed nanoparticles ornanocrystals, the performance of such nanoparticle suspensions can becontrolled.

Zeta potential is known as a measure of the electo-kinetic potential incolloidal systems and is also referred to as surface charge onparticles. Zeta potential is the potential difference that existsbetween the stationary layer of fluid and the fluid within which theparticle is dispersed. A zeta potential is often measured in millivolts(i.e., mV). The zeta potential value of approximately 20-25 mV is anarbitrary value that has been chosen to determine whether or not adispersed particle is stable in a dispersion medium. Thus, whenreference is made herein to “zeta potential”, it should be understoodthat the zeta potential referred to is a description or quantificationof the magnitude of the electrical charge present at the double layer.

The zeta potential is calculated from the electrophoretic mobility bythe Henry equation:

U _(E)=2εzf(ka)/3η

where z is the zeta potential, UE is the electrophoretic mobility, ε isa dielectric constant, η is a viscosity, Aka) is Henry's function. ForSmoluchowski approximation f(ka)=1.5.

Zeta potentials (“ZP”) for the gold nanocrystals prepared according themethods herein typically have a ZP of at least −20 mV, more typically atleast about −30 mV, even more typically, at least about −40 mV and evenmore typically at least about −50 mV.

II. Use of Novel Gold Nanocrystals

The gold nanocrystals of the present invention can be used to treat anydisorder for which gold therapy is known to be effective, which includesa broad range of inflammatory and autoimmune disorders as well ascertain infectious diseases and cancer. Descriptions of many of theseuses are provided in the Background of the Invention, above, orotherwise, in more detail below.

The subject to be treated may be human or another animal such as amammal. Non-human subjects include, but are not limited to primates,livestock animals (e.g., sheep, cows, horses, pigs, goats), domesticanimals (e.g., dogs, cats), birds and other animals (e.g., mice, rats,guinea pigs, rabbits).

Importantly, it has now been surprisingly discovered as part of thisinvention that the gold nanoparticles (and in particular the goldnanocrystals described in detail herein) inhibit macrophage MigrationInhibitory Factor (“MIF”). It is believed that this is the firstdisclosure of such activity of gold nanoparticles, and may provide ascientific basis to understand the range of medical uses for goldcompositions to date. It also provides a scientific basis to concludethat the gold nanoparticles will be effective against other diseaseswhich are mediated by macrophage migration inhibitory factor. Inaddition, it has been identified that these gold nanocrystals inhibitIL-6 but not IL-10. Because MIF and/or IL-6 is/are indicated in a largevariety of conditions and/or biological signaling pathways, such findingconfirms that the novel gold nanocrystals will be effective for thetreatment or prevention of diseases or conditions resulting frompathological cellular activation, such as inflammatory (includingchronic inflammatory) conditions, autoimmune conditions, certaininfections, hypersensitivity reactions and/or cancerous diseases orconditions.

MIF is a macrophage derived multifunctional cytokine important in anumber of pro-inflammatory events. MIF was originally described as aproduct of activated T-lymphocytes that inhibits the random migration ofmacrophages. While MIF was initially found to activate macrophages atinflammatory sites, MIF has now been shown to mediate a range ofsignaling agents in the immune system. MIF has been shown to beexpressed in human and animal diseases or conditions which includeinfection, inflammation, injury, ischemia and/or malignancy. MIF appearsto have a key role in cell proliferation, cell differentiation,angiogenesis and wound healing. MIF also seems to mediate glucocorticoid(steroids) activity by counteracting at least some of theiranti-inflammatory effects.

As shown in Examples 25 and 26, the nanocrystalline compositions of thepresent invention are very effective in the animal models for CIA andEAE. A connection between these two animal models (as well as humandisease state) is the presence of MIF.

Recent studies have indicated that monoclonal antibody antagonism of MIFmay be useful in the treatment of sepsis, certain types of cancers anddelayed type hypersensitivity. It appears that sepsis is triggered by anover-reaction of the inflammation and immune systems. In certaininfections, upon attack by microorganisms, the innate immune systemreacts first, whereby neutrophils, macrophages and natural killer cells(“NK cells”) are mobilized. Cytokines (and MIF) thus play an importantrole as mediators, which regulate activation and differentiation ofthese cells. Finally, the innate immune system interacts with theadaptive immune system via these and other stimulating molecules, uponwhich the adaptive immune system has the ability of constructing animmunological memory in addition to providing pathogen specificprotection.

MIF is seen as a major mediator in sepsis, as MIF incites the productionof TNF, other pro-inflammatory cytokines and eicosanoids, induces theexpression of TLR-4, which recognizes LPS, and appears to resist inactivating the innate immune response. MIF and glucocorticoids act asantagonists and are at least partially responsible for regulating theinflammatory reaction. MIF has an inhibiting effect on glucocorticoids,which typically inhibit inflammation.

Therapeutic antagonism of MIF can provide “steroid-sparing” effects orcan even be therapeutic in “steroid-resistant” diseases. Unlike otherpro-inflammatory molecules, such as certain cytokines, the expressionand/or release of MIF is coupled to (e.g., can be induced by)glucocorticoids. MIF seems to be able to antagonize the effects ofglucocorticoids. MIF has a major role in regulating pro-inflammatorycytokines. This has been shown to be the case for macrophages secretingTNF, IL-1.beta., IL-6 and IL-8. MIF also regulates IL-2 release. MIFalso has a role in regulating T cell proliferation. In vivo, MIF exertsa powerful glucocorticoid-antagonist effect in models includingendotoxic shock and experimental arthritis (e.g., collagen-inducedarthritis or “CIA” models, such as the one utilized in a later exampleherein and models of other inflammatory conditions and immune diseasesincluding colitis, multiple sclerosis (i.e., the EAE model discussed ingreater detail in Example 26), atherosclerosis, glomerulonephritis,uveitis and certain cancers).

Further, MIF has recently been shown to be important in the control ofleukocyte-endothelial interactions. Leukocytes interact with vascularendothelial cells in order to gain egress from the vasculature intotissues. The role of MIF in these processes has been demonstrated toaffect leukocyte-endothelial adhesion and migration. These processesseem to be an essential part of nearly all inflammatory diseases, andalso for diseases less well-identified as inflammatory including, forexample, atherosclerosis.

MIF is also expressed in plants (thus “MIF” may also refer to plant MIF)and where appropriate, the inventive gold nanocrystal suspensions (e.g.,comprising aqueous gold-based metal nanocrystals and/or mixtures of goldnanocrystals and other metal(s) and/or alloys of gold nanocrystals withother metal(s) and/or a combination therapy approach) may be used inbotanical/agricultural applications such as crop control.

MIF is a key cytokine in switching the nature of the immune response.The immune response has two effector mechanisms. The Th1 immune responsegenerates cytotoxic T cells that kill pathogens and damaged/defunctcells. The Th2 response generates antibodies that facilitatephagocytosis and activate complement. The role of MIF in determining thepolarization of the immune system is dependent on other cytokines suchas IL-10. IL-10 is a potent anti-inflammatory cytokine that blocks theaction of MIF on Th1 cells and leads to the generation of a Th2response. In the absence of IL-10 MIF will stimulate Th1 cells toproduce a cytotoxic response. IL10 is produced by Monocytes and B cellsin response to stimulation, whereas MIF is, for example, independentlyproduced and stored in the pituitary and T cells. MIF therefore plays animportant role in both T Cytotoxic cell mediated diseases—such asrheumatoid arthritis and Crohns, and antibody mediated diseases such asidiopathic thrombocytopenia.

Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory or explanation,when reference is made herein to “one or more signaling pathway(s)” itshould be understood as meaning that MIF, or at least one proteinassociated with MIF (e.g., including receptor sites such as CD74receptor sites) is/are implicated in the innate immune system (e.g., NKand phagocyte cells, complement proteins (e.g., C5a) and/or inflammatorypathways) and the adaptive immune systems (e.g., the T cell dependentcytotoxicity (Th1) and antibody (Th2) pathways). For example, when MIFis involved in the Th1 signaling pathway generating T Cytotoxic cellsother proteins such as, for example, IL6, TNF, and other cytokines arealso involved.

When the Th1 signaling pathway is overactive, a variety of diseases canresult, such as rheumatic diseases, connective tissue diseases,vasculitides, inflammatory conditions, vascular diseases, oculardiseases, pulmonary diseases, cancers, renal diseases, nervous systemdisorders, complications of infective disorders, allergic diseases, bonediseases, skin diseases, Type 1 Diabetes, Crohn's Disease, MS andgastrointestinal diseases, etc. Accordingly, by reducing the amount ofMIF function associated with this particular Th1 signaling pathway,chronic disease conditions can be mitigated.

In contrast, again without wishing to be bound by any particular theoryor explanation, when the Th2 signaling pathway is over-active, theproduction of various antibodies occurs leading to diseases such as, forexample and including, hemolytic anemia, ITP (IdiopathicThrombocytopenic Purpura), Hemolytic Disease of the newborn, etc.Furthermore, over-activity of this Th2 signaling pathway can result inan under-activity of the Th1 pathway, thus permitting various parasitesor cancers to thrive. For example, in the case of malaria where overproduction of one or more homologues of MIF leads to the generation ofan ineffective antibody response that is ineffective against theparasite (e.g., it is plausible that a variety of crystal forms orhomologues of MIF (or equivalents thereto) are made or presented by avariety of bacteria, parasites, virus, fungi, etc., each of which mayhave different reactivity relative to, for example, “ordinary” humanMIF, and which may alter host immune response so as to create at leastlocal environments of “immune privilege”). Accordingly, by reducing theamount of MIF function associated with this particular Th2 signalingpathway, other disease conditions can be mitigated.

Still further, without wishing to be bound by any particular theory orexplanation, MIF also has a role in driving the signaling pathwayassociated with innate immunity. This pathway involves the activation ofnatural killer (“NK”) cells, phagocytes and other non-specific pathogencell types and certain proteins such as complement proteins (e.g., C5a).Excess MIF (and/or MIF homologues), or similar effects of the same, canresult in undesirable over-expression or over-reaction in thisparticular signaling pathway as seen in multiple organ failure as aresult of sepsis. Examples include the Systemic Inflammatory ResponseSyndrome (SIRS). Accordingly, by reducing the amount of MIF activityassociated with this particular signaling pathway many inflammatorydiseases can be mitigated.

Accordingly when endogenous MIF is present (e.g., in excess under localenvironmental conditions), as measured by, for example, known body fluidmeasuring techniques such as ELISA, spectroscopy, etc., it is possiblethat one or more innate or adaptive immune system signaling pathways mayover-express, over activate or over-produce inflammatory/immunologicalcomponents. If for example, one or more forms of MIF present causes theproduction of an excessive T Cytotoxic response, or an excessiveantibody response or an exaggerated NK/phagocyte cell response, humandisease can result. When, for example, too many T Cytotoxic cells areexpressed, a variety of chronic inflammatory conditions can result.Similarly when excessive Th2 or innate responses are facilitated by MIF,other diseases are produced.

Still further, it is also known that malaria parasites, and otherparasites such as nematodes and filarial worms, and some cancers producecertain types of exogenous or non-regulated MIF or MIF homologues.Again, without wishing to be bound by any particular theory orexplanation, it appears that exogenous expression of MIF, or itshomologues, leads to stimulation of the Th2 signaling pathway, and maybe an attempt by the parasite, or the tumor, (i.e., “the invader”) tocreate a state where the immune response is activated by MIF or itshomologues such that that the activated particular signaling pathway isnot detrimental to the tumor or the parasite, etc.

With regard to, for example, a malaria parasite, the parasite maystimulate the Th2 signaling pathway by providing excess exogenous MIFresulting in the production of antibodies rather than T Cytotoxic cells.However, such antibodies do not typically harm the parasite. Therefore,the parasite appears to create at least a local area of immuneprivilege. In this regard if an alternative pathway such as, forexample, the Th1 pathway, or the natural killer (NK) cell pathway, canbe re-activated, damage could then occur to the parasite (e.g., theimmune system could remove the parasite). However, if excess antibodiesor other immune/inflammatory products are created, for example, as aresult of the preferential activation of the Th2 pathway, it is possiblethat the excess antibodies will end up cross-linking to various cellsites or activating other immunological molecules. When suchcross-linking or activation occurs, a very large inflammatory responsecould result. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory orexplanation, it is possible that this inflammatory response is preciselythe response that occurs in women who are pregnant and are infected withmalaria making them vulnerable to severe malaria, and the anemia ofmalaria. It is believed that pregnant women are particularly susceptibleto this effect, due to the immunological effects of the placenta inpromoting a Th2 response and sequestering parasites in thisimmune-privileged zone.

Again, without wishing to be bound by any particular theory orexplanation, cancer cells also express MIF apparently in an attempt toat least partially control immune response thereto and/or promote theirown growth. In this regard, it appears that cancer cells are alsoattempting to manipulate the immune system to follow the Th2 signalingpathway, in contrast to the Th1 signaling pathway which could damage orkill the cancer cells. For example, by causing local immune privilege tobe created, there is no (or little) particular risk to cancer cells. Incontrast, if MIF was to stimulate the Th1 signaling pathway, then acytokine cell/inflammatory response may result, causing damage or deathto the cancer cells (e.g., the tumor could be naturally eliminated bythe immune system).

Again, without wishing to be bound by any particular theory orexplanation, children possess an immature immune system, particularlythe innate and Th1 pathways. This immaturity in some children results inaltered MIF metabolism. It thus appears that the modulation of MIF inchildren could result in the prevention or improvement of infectious orinflammatory diseases.

Accordingly, without wishing to be bound by any particular theory orexplanation, the inventive gold nanocrystal suspensions of the presentinvention can be used to modify one or more signaling pathways (e.g.,Th1 signaling pathway, Th2 signaling pathway and/or innate immunitypathway) either alone or in conjunction with other therapies thatmodulate signaling pathways. Thus, by interacting with or controllingthe MIF (or MIF homologue) associated with one or more signalingpathway(s), various immunological responses can be turned on and/or canbe turned off. Accordingly, the response along the Th1 and Th2 signalingpathways for the creation of T Cytotoxic cells or antibodies can beturned on, or can be turned off (e.g., the Th1-Th2 switch can becontrolled to direct more or less of either immune pathway beinginvoked). Similarly, the innate immune system and resultant inflammationcan be turned on or can be turned off.

With the knowledge that one or more signaling pathways can be turnedon/off, very important therapeutic treatments can thus occur. Forexample, a variety of surrogate endpoints can be monitored or examinedfor a variety of different diseases, including, for example, manycancers. For example, the antigen, “carcino-embryonic antigen” or “CEA”is a known surrogate endpoint marker for the amount of tumor or theamount of tumor burden present in a variety of different cancers. Forexample, it is known that the higher the CEA amount, the more tumorsthere are associated with ovarian cancer, breast cancer, colon cancer,rectal cancer, pancreatic cancer, lung cancer, etc. In this regard, theamount of carcino-embryonic antigen can be measured by, for example,drawing blood and testing for the presence of CEA by known techniquesincluding, for example, ELISA and certain spectroscopy techniques. Inthis regard, once blood is drawn and a measurement is made to determinethe amount of CEA, the extent of treatment required (e.g., the dose,duration and/or the amount) can be driven by monitoring the change inthe amount of CEA measured. For example, if 15-45 ml of 10 ppm productis taken 2-3 times per day, monitoring of the amount of CEA could causean increase in dosage, or a decrease in dosage, depending on the desiredoutcome.

Likewise, prostate cancer has a known surrogate endpoint of“prostate-specific antigen” or “PSA”. This surrogate endpoint can alsobe monitored by drawing blood and searching for the same by ELISAtechniques.

Still further, various cancers, like melanoma (e.g., ocular, etc.) alsoexpress antigens for example “GP100” and/or “Melan-A”. These surrogateendpoints can also be determined by drawing blood from a patient andthen measuring by similar ELISA or spectrographic techniques for theamount of antigen present. In all such cases, the presence of antigencan cause an increase/decrease in the amount of therapeutic treatmentprovided.

The following “Table A” sets forth a number of known “Tumor Markers” andassociated cancers, as well as where biological samples are drawn tomeasure such markers.

TABLE A Common Tumor Markers Currently in Use Usual Cancers sample TumorMarkers AFP (Alpha-feto protein) Liver, germ cell cancer of Bloodovaries or testes B2M (Beta-2 Multiple myeloma Blood microglobulin) andlymphomas CA 15-3 Breast cancer and others, Blood (Cancer antigen 15-3)including lung, ovarian CA 19-9 Pancreatic, sometimes Blood (Cancerantigen 19-9) colorectal and bile ducts CA-125 Ovarian Blood (Cancerantigen 125) Calcitonin Thyroid medullary carcinoma Blood CEA (Carcino-Colorectal, lung, Blood embryonic antigen) breast, thyroid, pancreatic,liver, cervix, and bladder Chromogranin A (CgA) Neuroendocrine tumorsBlood (carcinoid tumors, neuroblastoma) Estrogen receptors Breast TissuehCG (Human chorionic Testicular and trophoblastic Blood, gonadotropin)disease urine Her-2/neu Breast Tissue Monoclonal Multiple myeloma andBlood, immunoglobulins Waldenstrom's urine macroglobulinemiaProgesterone receptors Breast Tissue PSA (Prostate specific ProstateBlood antigen), total and free Thyroglobulin Thyroid Blood Other TumorMarkers Less Widely Used BTA (Bladder tumor Bladder Urine antigen) CA72-4 (Cancer Ovarian Blood antigen 72-4) Des-gamma-carboxyHepatocellular carcinoma Blood prothrombin (DCP) (HCC) EGFR (Her-1)Solid tumors, such as of the Tissue lung (non small cell), head andneck, colon, pancreas, or breast NSE (Neuron-specific Neuroblastoma,small cell lung Blood enolase) cancer NMP22 Bladder Urine Prostatic acidMetastatic prostate cancer, Blood phosphatase (PAP) myeloma, lung cancerSoluble Mesothelin- Mesothelioma Blood Related Peptides (SMRP)

Still further, various diseases of immune and inflammation dysfunction,like rheumatoid arthritis and Crohn's can be assessed using inflammatorymarkers such as C Reactive Protein (CRP) or erythrocyte sedimentationrate (ESR). These surrogate endpoints can also be determined by drawingblood from a patient and then measuring by visual ELISA orspectrographic techniques for the amount of marker present. In all suchcases, the change in an inflammatory/immune marker can cause anincrease/decrease in the amount of therapeutic treatment provided.

Still further, various antibody-based diseases, like hemolytic anemia orRhesus disease, can be monitored by the concentration of specificantibodies present. These surrogate endpoints can also be determined bydrawing blood from a patient and then measuring, by similar ELISA orspectrographic techniques, for the amount of antibody present. In allsuch cases, the presence of antibody can cause an increase/decrease inthe amount of therapeutic treatment provided.

Inhibitors or modifiers of MIF and/or one or more of MIF's signalingpathway(s) may also be used in implantable devices such as stents.Accordingly, in a further aspect the present invention provides animplantable device, preferably a stent, comprising:

(i) a reservoir containing at least one compound of metallic-basedcompound comprising gold solutions or colloids and mixtures and alloysthereof; and

(ii) means to release or elute the inhibitor or modifier from thereservoir.

According to the invention therefore, there are a variety of indicationsthat the nanocrystalline gold-based therapies of the present inventionwill have desirable efficacy against including various autoimmunediseases, tumors, or chronic or acute inflammatory conditions ordiseases, disorders, syndromes, states, tendencies or predispositions,etc., selected from the group comprising:

rheumatic diseases (including but not limited to rheumatoid arthritis,osteoarthritis, psoriatic arthritis, Still's disease)spondyloarthropathies (including but not limited to ankylosingspondylitis, reactive arthritis, Reiter's syndrome), crystalarthropathies (including but not limited to gout, pseudogout, calciumpyrophosphate deposition disease), Lyme disease, polymyalgia rheumatica;

connective tissue diseases (including but not limited to systemic lupuserythematosus, systemic sclerosis, scleroderma, polymyositis,dermatomyositis, Sjogren's syndrome);

vasculitides (including but not limited to polyarteritis nodosa,Wegener's granulomatosis, Churg-Strauss syndrome);

inflammatory conditions or tendencies including consequences of traumaor ischemia; sarcoidosis;

vascular diseases including atherosclerotic vascular disease andinfarction, atherosclerosis, and vascular occlusive disease (includingbut not limited to atherosclerosis, ischemic heart disease, myocardialinfarction, stroke, peripheral vascular disease), and vascular stentrestenosis;

ocular diseases including uveitis, corneal disease, iritis,iridocyclitis, and cataracts;

autoimmune diseases (including but not limited to diabetes mellitus,thyroiditis, myasthenia gravis, sclerosing cholangitis, primary biliarycirrhosis);

pulmonary diseases (including but not limited to diffuse interstitiallung diseases, pneumoconiosis, fibrosing alveolitis, asthma, bronchitis,bronchiectasis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, adult respiratorydistress syndrome);

cancers whether primary or metastatic (including but not limited toprostate cancer, colon cancer, bladder cancer, kidney cancer, lymphoma,lung cancer, melanoma, multiple myeloma, breast cancer, stomach cancer,leukemia, cervical cancer and metastatic cancer);

renal diseases including glomerulonephritis, interstitial nephritis;

disorders of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis;

nervous system disorders including multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer'sdisease, Parkinson's Disease, Huntington's disease;

diseases characterized by modified angiogenesis (e.g., diabeticretinopathy, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer) and endometriosis;

infectious diseases, including but not limited to bacterial, parasitesor viral, including HIV, HBV, HCV, tuberculosis, malaria, and worms(including the current FDA designated neglected diseases of thedeveloping world).

complications of infective disorders including endotoxic (septic) shock,exotoxic (septic) shock, infective (true septic) shock, complications ofmalaria (e.g., cerebral malaria and anemia), other complications ofinfection, and pelvic inflammatory disease;

transplant rejection, graft-versus-host disease;

allergic diseases including allergies, atopic diseases, allergicrhinitis;

bone diseases (e.g., osteoporosis, Paget's disease);

skin diseases including psoriasis, eczema, atopic dermatitis,UV(B)-induced dermal cell activation (e.g., sunburn, skin cancer);

diabetes mellitus and its complications;

pain, testicular dysfunctions and wound healing;

gastrointestinal diseases including inflammatory bowel disease(including but not limited to ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease),peptic ulceration, gastritis, esophagitis, liver disease (including butnot limited to cirrhosis and hepatitis).

In one embodiment, the disease or condition is selected from the groupconsisting of rheumatoid arthritis, osteo arthritis, systemic lupuserythematosus, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, multiple sclerosis,psoriasis, eczema, uveitis, diabetes mellitus, glomerulonephritis,atherosclerotic vascular disease and infarction, asthma, chronicobstructive pulmonary disease, HIV, HBV, HCV, tuberculosis, malaria,worms, and cancer(s).

III. Pharmaceutical Compositions

Pharmaceutical compositions which include an effective amount of thegold nanocrystals to treat any of the medical conditions described inthis application are also provided. In a preferred embodiment, the goldnanocrystals are administered in an orally delivered liquid, wherein thegold nanocrystals remain in the water of manufacture which may beconcentrated or reconstituted, but preferable not dried to the pointthat the surfaces of the gold nanocrystals become completely dry or havetheir surfaces otherwise altered from their pristine state ofmanufacture.

Based on experiments, it appears that the present gold nanocrystals area more potent form of gold than prior art gold-based materials,including both FDA-approved gold-based pharmaceutical products, andnon-FDA-approved gold colloids, due to the substantially clean veryactive crystalline surfaces. Because of this, it is expected thatsignificantly lower doses of the present nanocrystals can be used, thandose levels required by prior art compositions, including the oral goldproduct Auranofin.

For example, in the widely accepted collagen induced arthritis mousemodel, a standard dose is 40 mg/kg/day of Auranofin, which isapproximately 1 mg/mouse/day of Auranofin, and 0.30 mg gold/day of goldcontained in Auranofin. This standard Auranofin dose level appears togive an equivalent response to that resulting from a dose of about 0.06mg/day of the gold nanocrystals of the present invention (Example 25).Thus, in such experiment, the present nanocrystals were calculated to be17 times more potent than was the Auranofin, and 5 times more potentthan the gold species contained in the Auranofin.

The standard FDA-approved dose level for Auranofin in humans is 6mg/day, or 0.9 mg/kg/day. The gold contained in that human dose levelsof Auranofin is 1.74 mg, or 0.025 mg/kg. Given the relative potency ofthe novel gold nanocrystals compared to that of Auranofin, asdemonstrated in the live animal model, an approximate human dose levelfor the novel gold nanocrystal can be calculated by dividing the humandose level for Auranofin by the relative potency factor of 17×, or bydividing the human dose level of the gold contained in the Auranofin bythe relative potency factor of 5×. This results in an approximate humandose level for the novel gold nanocrystals of 0.35 mg/day, versus the6mg/day required for Auranofin, and 1.74 mg/day required for goldcontained in Auranofin. 0.35 mg/day, for a 70 kg human being, is a doseof 0.005 mg/kg/day.

It is normal in developing dosing levels to establish a range of oneorder of magnitude or more surrounding an estimated mg/kg dose. In thiscase, if the approximate suggested base dose is 1/17 that of the basedose of Auranofin, or 0.348 mg/day, which is 0.005 mg/kg/day, thissuggests that an effective dosing range for Auranofin-like efficacy withthe novel nanocrystals can be achieved at dosing levels of 0.005mg/kg/day, and even greater efficacy at levels in the range of 0.01mg/kg/day or 0.25 mg/kg/day.

It is important to recognize that in pharmaceutical products theobjective is to establish the minimum dose necessary to achieveefficacy, thus minimizing potential for toxicity or complications. A neworally administered product with significantly greater potency canachieve efficacy at dose levels below those of prior art products,and/or can achieve substantially greater efficacy at equivalent doselevels.

Moreover, it is observed in animal trials that toxicity levels of thenovel nanocrystals are low, even at maximum dose levels, which meansthat even at higher dose levels there is less toxicity than with currentproducts such as Auranofin.

It has also been observed in mice that a therapeutic effect is seenfaster than with Auranofin, which has a typical onset of action ofweeks, compared to days for the present nanocrystals (See Example 25).This is a major advantage in use, since it means patients enjoy reliefsooner, and are much more likely to continue to comply with the regimenand thus continue to benefit from the product.

It has further been observed that the present gold nanocrystals have abetter therapeutic index than Auranofin due to the lower dose requiredto achieve efficacy and the associated lower toxicity.

It is also important to recognize that to have real value as apharmaceutical treatment, a product must be manufacturable under highpharmaceutical-grade manufacturing, sourcing, and quality controlstandards, as defined by the FDA as Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP).Conventional gold nanoparticles are made by a variety of methods, mostof which involve chemical reduction processes. There appear to be nocurrent chemical reduction or other conventional processes forproduction of gold nanoparticles which comply with GMP, and given thenature of these processes, it appears that GMP compliance, if possible,will be extremely challenging and will require substantial time, money,and inventive engineering to achieve. The process by which the presentnovel gold nanocrystals are produced is designed to be GMP compliant,establishing another major difference and advantage of the present goldnanocrystals.

While clinical trials are required to confirm the therapeuticallyefficacious dose, it is reasonable to conclude that doses ranging from0.05 mgs or more (or 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 mg or more) to 10 mg or more perdosage (once, twice or multiple times per day) are effective in a humanto treat any of the conditions described herein. Given the low toxicityof these gold nanocrystals, for more problematic disorders it isappropriate to use at higher dose levels, including but not limiteddosages of 10 mgs or more, such as 20 mg or more per dosage.

Any concentration of gold nanocrystals can be provided according to theinvention. For example, concentrations of these gold nanocrystals can bea few parts per million (i.e., μg/ml or mg/l) up to a few hundred ppm,but are typically in the range of 2-200 ppm (i.e., 2 μg/ml-200 μg/ml)and more often in the range of 2-50 ppm (i.e., 2 μg/ml-50 μg/ml). Atypical convenient concentration may be around 5-20 μg/ml, and moretypically about 8-15 μg/ml.

Pharmaceutical compositions are provided that are appropriate forsystemic or topical use, including oral, intravenous, subcutaneous,intra-arterial, buccal, inhalation, aerosol, propellant or otherappropriate liquid, etc, as described further herein, including specificgels or creams discussed in Example 23.

Alternatively, suitable dosages of active ingredient may lie within therange of about 0.1 ng per kg of body weight to about 1 g per kg of bodyweight per dosage. The dosage is typically in the range of 1 μg to 1 gper kg of body weight per dosage, such as is in the range of 1 mg to 1 gper kg of body weight per dosage. In one embodiment, the dosage is inthe range of 1 mg to 500 mg per kg of body weight per dosage. In anotherembodiment, the dosage is in the range of 1 mg to 250 mg per kg of bodyweight per dosage. In yet another preferred embodiment, the dosage is inthe range of 1 mg to 100 mg per kg of body weight per dosage, such as upto 50 mg per kg of body weight per dosage. In yet another embodiment,the dosage is in the range of 1 μg to 1 mg per kg of body weight perdosage.

Suitable dosage amounts and dosing regimens can be determined by theattending physician or veterinarian and may depend on the desired levelof inhibiting and/or modifying activity, the particular condition beingtreated, the severity of the condition, whether the dosage ispreventative or therapeutic, as well as the general age, health andweight of the subject.

The gold nanocrystals contained in, for example, an aqueous medium,colloid, suspension, foam, gel, paste, liquid, cream or the like, may beadministered in a single dose or a series of doses. While it is possiblefor the aqueous medium containing the metallic-based nanocrystals to beadministered alone in, for example, colloid form, it may be acceptableto include the active ingredient mixture with other compositions and ortherapies. Further, various pharmaceutical compositions can be added tothe active ingredient(s)/suspension(s)/colloid(s).

Accordingly, typically, the inventive gold nanocrystal suspensions orcolloids (e.g., comprising aqueous gold-based metal and/or mixtures ofgold and other metal(s) and/or alloys of gold with other metal(s) and/ora combination therapy approach) are administered in conjunction with asecond therapeutic agent. More typically, the second therapeutic agentcomprises a glucocorticoid.

In a further aspect of the invention, there is provided a pharmaceuticalcomposition comprising the inventive gold nanocrystal suspensions orcolloids (e.g., comprising aqueous gold-based metal and/or mixtures ofgold and other metal(s) and/or alloys of gold with other metal(s) and/ora combination therapy approach) together with a pharmaceuticallyacceptable carrier, diluent or excipient. The formulation of suchcompositions is well known to those skilled in the art. The compositionmay contain pharmaceutically acceptable additives such as carriers,diluents or excipients. These include, where appropriate, allconventional solvents, dispersion agents, fillers, solid earners,coating agents, antifungal and/or antibacterial agents, dermalpenetration agents, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, surfactants, isotonic andabsorption agents and the like. It will be understood that thecompositions of the invention may also include other supplementaryphysiologically active agents. Still further, a large variety of dietarysupplements and homeopathic carriers can also be utilized. Specifically,choices of such ingredients can be based in part on known functionalityor use of these ingredients such that when combined with activeingredients of the invention, additive or synergistic affects can beachieved.

The carrier should be pharmaceutically acceptable in the sense of beingcompatible with the other ingredients in the inventive gold nanocrystalsuspensions and not injurious (e.g., toxic at therapeutically activeamounts) to the subject. Compositions include those suitable for oral,rectal, inhalational, nasal, transdermal, topical (including buccal andsublingual), vaginal or parenteral (including subcutaneous,intramuscular, intraspinal, intravenous and intradermal) administration.The compositions may conveniently be presented in unit dosage form andmay be prepared by any methods well known in the art of pharmacy,homeopathy and/or dietary supplements. Such methods include the step ofbringing into association the inventive metallic-based nanocrystals orsuspensions with the carrier which constitutes one or more accessoryingredients. In general, the compositions are prepared by uniformly andintimately bringing into association one or more active ingredients inthe solution/colloid under appropriate non-reactive conditions whichminimize or eliminate, to the extent possible, negative or adversereactions.

Depending on the disease or condition to be treated, it may or may notbe desirable for the inventive gold nanocrystal suspensions or colloidsto cross the blood/brain barrier.

Thus, the gold nanocrystal suspensions or colloids of the presentinvention may be manufactured to be of desirable size, desirable crystalplane(s) and/or desirable shapes or shape distributions, etc (asdiscussed elsewhere herein) to assist in crossing the blood/brainbarrier.

Gold nanocrystal suspensions according to the present invention suitablefor oral administration are presented typically as a stable solution,colloid or a partially stable suspension in water. However, such goldnanocrystals may also be included in a non-aqueous liquid, as discreteunits such as liquid capsules, sachets or even tablets (e.g., drying-outsuspensions or colloids to result in active ingredient gold-basednanocrystals so long as such processing does not adversely affect thefunctionality of the pristine gold nanocrystal surfaces) each containinga predetermined amount, of, for example, the gold nanocrystal activeingredient; as a powder or granules; as a solution, colloid or asuspension in an aqueous or as non-aqueous liquid; or as an oil-in-waterliquid emulsion or a water-in-oil liquid emulsion. The gold nanocrystalactive ingredient may also be combined into a bolus, electuary or paste.

A tablet made from the inventive gold nanocrystal suspensions orcolloids (e.g., comprising aqueous gold-based nanocrystals and/or alloysof gold with other metal(s) and/or a combination therapy approach) andother materials or compounds may be made by, for example, first dryingthe suspension or colloid, collecting residual dried material and bycompression or molding, forcing the powder into a suitable tablet or thelike. For example, compressed tablets may be prepared by compressing in,a suitable machine, the active ingredient nanocrystals, for example, themetallic-based nanocrystals, in a free-flowing form such as a powder orgranules, optionally mixed with a binder (e.g., inert diluent,preservative, disintegrant (e.g., sodium starch glycolate, cross-linkedpolyvinyl pyrrolidone, cross-linked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose))surface-active or dispersing agent. Molded tablets may be made by, forexample, molding or pressing in a suitable machine a mixture of thepowdered compound moistened with an inert liquid diluent. The tabletsmay optionally be coated or scored and may be formulated so as toprovide slow or controlled release of the active ingredient thereinusing, for example, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose in varying proportionsto provide the desired release profile. Tablets may optionally beprovided with an enteric coating, to provide for release in parts of thegut other than the stomach.

Compositions suitable for topical administration in the mouth includelozenges comprising suspensions or colloids containing one or moreactive ingredient(s) gold nanocrystal in a flavored base, such assucrose and acacia or tragacanth gum; pastilles comprising the goldnanocrystal active ingredient in an inert base such as a gelatin and aglycerin, or sucrose and acacia gum; and mouthwashes comprising the goldnanocrystal active ingredient in a suitable liquid carrier.

The inventive gold nanocrystal suspensions or colloids (e.g., comprisingaqueous gold-based metal and/or mixtures of gold and other metal(s)and/or alloys of gold with other metal(s) and/or a combination therapyapproach) may also be administered intranasally or via inhalation, forexample by atomizer, aerosol or nebulizer means for causing one or moreconstituents in the solution or colloid (e.g., the gold nanocrystals) tobe, for example, contained within a mist or spray.

Compositions suitable for topical administration to the skin maycomprise the gold nanocrystals of the invention suspended in anysuitable carrier or base and may be in the form of lotions, gel, creams,pastes, ointments and the like. Suitable carriers include mineral oil,propylene glycol, polyoxyethylene, polyoxypropylene, emulsifying wax,sorbitan monostearate, polysorbate 60, cetyl esters wax, cetearylalcohol, 2-octyldodecanol, benzyl alcohol, carbopol and water.Transdermal devices, such as patches, may also be used to administer thecompounds of the invention.

Compositions for rectal administration may be presented as a suppositorywith a suitable carrier base comprising, for example, cocoa butter,gelatin, glycerin or polyethylene glycol.

Compositions suitable for vaginal administration may be presented aspessaries, tampons, creams, gels, pastes, foams or spray formulationscontaining in addition to the active ingredient such carriers as areknown in the art to be appropriate.

Compositions suitable for parenteral administration include aqueous andnon-aqueous isotonic sterile injection suspensions or colloids which maycontain anti-oxidants, buffers, bactericides and solutes which renderthe composition isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient; andaqueous and non-aqueous sterile suspensions which may include suspendingagents and thickening agents. The compositions may be presented inunit-dose or multi-dose sealed containers, for example, ampoules andvials, and may be stored in a freeze-dried (lyophilised) conditionrequiring only the addition of the sterile liquid carrier, for examplewater for injections, immediately prior to use. Extemporaneous injectionsolutions, colloids and suspensions may be prepared from sterilepowders, granules and tablets of the kind previously described.

Preferred unit dosage compositions are those containing a daily dose orunit, daily sub-dose, as herein above described, or an appropriatefraction thereof, of the active ingredient.

It should be understood that in addition to the gold nanocrystal activeingredients particularly mentioned above, the compositions of thisinvention may include other agents conventional in the art having regardto the type of composition in question, for example, those suitable fororal administration may include such further agents as binders,sweeteners, thickeners, flavoring agents, disintegrating agents, coatingagents, preservatives, lubricants, time delay agents and/or positionrelease agents. Suitable sweeteners include sucrose, lactose, glucose,aspartame or saccharine. Suitable disintegrating agents include cornstarch, methylcellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone, xanthan gum, bentonite,alginic acid or agar. Suitable flavoring agents include peppermint oil,oil of wintergreen, cherry, orange or raspberry flavoring. Suitablecoating agents include polymers or copolymers of acrylic acid and/ormethacrylic acid and/or their esters, waxes, fatty alcohols, zein,shellac or gluten. Suitable preservatives include sodium benzoate,vitamin E, alpha-tocopherol, ascorbic acid, methyl paraben, propylparaben or sodium bisulphite. Suitable lubricants include magnesiumstearate, stearic acid, sodium oleate, sodium chloride or talc. Suitabletime delay agents include glyceryl mono stearate or glyceryl distearate.

Further, by following the inventive electrochemical manufacturingprocesses of the invention, these gold-based metallic nanocrystals canbe alloyed or combined with other metals in liquids such that gold“coatings” may occur on other metals (or other non-metal species such asSiO₂, for example) or alternatively, gold-based nanocrystals may becoated by other metals. In such cases, gold-based composites or alloysmay result within a colloid or suspension. Further, certain compositeswhich include both gold and other metals can also be formed.

Still further, gold-based metallic nanocrystals suspensions or colloidsof the present invention can be mixed or combined with othermetallic-based solutions or colloids to form novel solution or colloidmixtures (e.g., in this instance, distinct metal species can still bediscerned).

IV. Method of Manufacturing Gold Nanocrystals

A novel process is provided to produce these unique gold nanocrystals.The process involves the creation of the gold nanocrystals in water. Ina preferred embodiment, the water contains an added “process enhancer”which does not significantly bind to the formed nanocrystals, but ratherfacilitates nucleation/crystal growth during theelectrochemical-stimulated growth process. The process enhancer servesimportant roles in the process including providing charged ions in theelectrochemical solution to permit the crystals to be grown.. Thesenovel electrochemical processes can occur in either a batch,semi-continuous or continuous process. These processes result incontrolled gold nanocrystalline concentrations, controlled nanocrystalsizes and controlled nanocrystal size ranges; as well as controllednanocrystal shapes and controlled nanocrystal shape distributions. Novelmanufacturing assemblies are provided to produce these goldnanocrystals.

In one preferred embodiment, the gold-based nanocrystal suspensions orcolloids are made or grown by electrochemical techniques in either abatch, semi-continuous or continuous process, wherein the amount,average particle size, crystal plane(s) and/or particle shape(s) and/orparticle shape distributions are controlled and/or optimized to achievehigh biological activity and low cellular/biologic toxicity (e.g., ahigh therapeutic index). Desirable average crystal sizes include avariety of different ranges, but the most desirable ranges includeaverage crystal sizes that are predominantly less than 100 nm and moretypically, for many uses, less than 50 nm and even more typically for avariety of, for example, oral uses, less than 30 nm, and in many of thepreferred embodiments disclosed herein, the mode for the nanocrystalsize distribution is less than 21 nm and within an even more preferablerange of 8-18 nm, as measured by drying such solutions and constructingparticle size histograms from TEM measurements (as described in moredetail herein). Further, the particles desirably contain crystal planes,such desirable crystal planes including crystals having {111}, {110}and/or {100} facets, which can result in desirable crystal shapes anddesirable crystal shape distributions and better performance than goldspherical or randomly-shaped particles.

Further, by following the inventive electrochemical manufacturingprocesses of the invention, these gold-based metallic nanocrystals canbe alloyed or combined with other metals in liquids such that gold“coatings” may occur on other metals (or other non-metal species such asSiO₂, for example) or alternatively, gold-based nanocrystals may becoated by other metals. In such cases, gold-based composites or alloysmay result within a colloid or suspension. Further, certain compositeswhich include both gold and other metals can also be formed.

Still further, gold-based metallic nanocrystals suspensions or colloidsof the present invention can be mixed or combined with othermetallic-based solutions or colloids to form novel solution or colloidmixtures (e.g., in this instance, distinct metal species can still bediscerned).

Methods for making novel metallic-based nanocrystal suspensions orcolloids according to the invention relate generally to novel methodsand novel devices for the continuous, semi-continuous and batchmanufacture of a variety of constituents in a liquid includingmicron-sized particles, nanocrystals, ionic species and aqueous-basedcompositions of the same, including, nanocrystal/liquid(s), solution(s),colloid(s) or suspension(s). The constituents and nanocrystals producedcan comprise a variety of possible compositions, concentrations, sizes,crystal planes (e.g., spatially extended low index crystal planes)and/or shapes, which together can cause the inventive compositions toexhibit a variety of novel and interesting physical, catalytic,biocatalytic and/or biophysical properties. The liquid(s) used andcreated/modified during the process can play an important role in themanufacturing of, and/or the functioning of the constituents (e.g.,nanocrystals) independently or synergistically with the liquids whichcontain them. The particles (e.g., nanocrystals) are caused to bepresent (e.g., created and/or the liquid is predisposed to theirpresence (e.g., conditioned)) in at least one liquid (e.g., water) by,for example, typically utilizing at least one adjustable plasma (e.g.,created by at least one AC and/or DC power source), which adjustableplasma communicates with at least a portion of a surface of the liquid.However, effective constituent (e.g., nanocrystals) suspensions orcolloids can be achieved without the use of such plasmas as well.

Metal-based electrodes of various composition(s) and/or uniqueconfigurations or arrangements are preferred for use in the formation ofthe adjustable plasma(s), but non-metallic-based electrodes can also beutilized for at least a portion of the process. Utilization of at leastone subsequent and/or substantially simultaneous adjustableelectrochemical processing technique is also preferred. Metal-basedelectrodes of various composition(s) and/or unique configurations arepreferred for use in the electrochemical processing technique(s).Electric fields, magnetic fields, electromagnetic fields,electrochemistry, pH, zeta potential, chemical/crystal constituentspresent, etc., are just some of the variables that can be positivelyaffected by the adjustable plasma(s) and/or adjustable electrochemicalprocessing technique(s) of the invention. Multiple adjustable plasmasand/or adjustable electrochemical techniques are preferred in manyembodiments of the invention to achieve many of the processingadvantages of the present invention, as well as many of the novelnanocrystals and nanocrystal compositions which result from practicingthe teachings of the preferred embodiments to make an almost limitlessset of inventive aqueous solutions, suspensions and/or colloids.

In the continuous process embodiments of the invention, at least oneliquid, for example water, flows into, through and out of at least onetrough member and such liquid is processed, conditioned, modified and/oreffected by said at least one adjustable plasma and/or said at least oneadjustable electrochemical technique. The results of the continuousprocessing include new constituents in the liquid, micron-sizedparticles, ionic constituents, nanocrystals (e.g., metallic-basednanocrystals) of novel and/or controllable size, hydrodynamic radius,concentration, crystal sizes and crystal size ranges, crystal planes,spatially extended low index crystal planes, crystal shapes anddistributions of crystal shapes and, composition, zeta potential, pHand/or properties, such nanocrystal/liquid mixture being produced in anefficient and economical manner.

In a preferred embodiment, the process involves the nucleation andgrowth of the gold nanocrystals in water which contains a “processenhancer” or “processing enhancer” (typically an inorganic material)which does not significantly bind to the formed nanocrystals, but ratherfacilitates nucleation/growth during electrochemical-stimulated growthprocess. The process enhancer serves important roles in the processincluding providing charged ions in the electrochemical solution topermit the crystals to be grown. The process enhancer is critically acompound(s) which remains in solution, and/or does not form a coating(e.g., an organic coating), and/or does not adversely affect the formednanocrystals or the formed suspension(s), and/or is destroyed,evaporated, or is otherwise lost during the electrochemical process. Apreferred process enhancer is sodium bicarbonate. Examples of otherprocess enhancers are sodium carbonate, potassium bicarbonate, potassiumcarbonate, trisodium phosphate, disodium phosphate, monosodiumphosphate, potassium phosphates or other salts of carbonic acid or thelike. Further process enhancers may be salts, including sodium orpotassium, of bisulfate or sulfite. Still other process enhancers tomake gold nanocrystals for medical applications under certain conditionsmay be other salts, including sodium or potassium, or any material thatassists in the electrochemical growth processes described herein; andany material is not substantially incorporated into or onto the surfaceof the gold nanocrystals; and does not impart toxicity to thenanocrystals or to the suspension containing the nanocrystals.

Desirable concentration ranges for the processing enhancer includetypically 0.01-20 grams/gallon (0.0026-2.1730 mg/ml), more typically,0.1-7.5 grams/gallon (0.0264-1.9813 mg/ml) and most typically, 0.5-2.0grams/gallon (0.13210-0.5283 mg/ml).

For example, certain processing enhancers may dissociate into positiveions (cations) and negative ions (anions). The anions and/or cations,depending on a variety of factors including liquid composition,concentration of ions, applied fields, frequency of applied fields,waveform of the applied filed, temperature, pH, zeta potential, etc.,will navigate or move toward oppositely charged electrodes. When saidions are located at or near such electrodes, the ions may take part inone or more reactions with the electrode(s) and/or other constituent(s)located at or near such electrode(s). Sometimes ions may react with oneor more materials in the electrode (e.g., when NaCl is used as aprocessing enhancer, various metal chloride (MCl, MCl₂, etc.) may form).Such reactions may be desirable in some cases or undesirable in others.Further, sometimes ions present in a solution between electrodes may notreact to form a product such as MCl, MCl₂, etc., but rather mayinfluence material in the electrode (or near the electrode) to formmetallic nano-crystals that are “grown” from material provided by theelectrode. For example, certain metal ions may enter the liquid 3 fromthe electrode 5 and be caused to come together (e.g., nucleate) to formconstituents (e.g., ions, nanocrystals, etc.) within the liquid 3.

Further, it is important to select a process enhancer that will notimpart toxicity to the gold nanocrystal or the liquid that the crystalis in to maximize pharmaceutical acceptability. For example, for certainapplications, chloride ion may be undesired if it creates gold chloridesalts which may have toxicity.

Further, depending upon the specific formed products, drying,concentrating and/or freeze drying can also be utilized to remove atleast a portion of, or substantially all of, the suspending liquid,resulting in, for example, partially or substantially completelydehydrated nanocrystals. If solutions, suspensions or colloids arecompletely dehydrated, the metal-based species should be capable ofbeing rehydrated by the addition of liquid (e.g., of similar ordifferent composition than that which was removed). However, not allcompositions/colloids of the present invention can be completelydehydrated without adversely affecting performance of thecomposition/colloid. For example, many nanocrystals formed in a liquidtend to clump or stick together (or adhere to surfaces) when dried. Ifsuch clumping is not reversible during a subsequent rehydration step,dehydration should be avoided.

In general, it is possible to concentrate, several folds, certainsolutions, suspensions or colloids of gold made according to theinvention, without destabilizing the composition. However, completeevaporation is difficult to achieve due to, for example, agglomerationeffects. In many of the embodiments disclosed herein, such agglomerationeffects seem to begin at an approximate volume of 30% of the initial orstarting reference volume being removed from the suspension or colloid.Additionally, one can evaporate off a certain volume of liquid andsubsequently reconstitute or add-back the amount of liquid evaporated toachieve a very similar product, as characterized by, for example, FAAS,DLS, and UV-Vis techniques. For Example, two 500 ml suspensions ofnanocrystalline colloidal gold, made by techniques similar to those tomanufacture GB-139 (discussed in detail in the Examples section herein)were each placed into a glass beaker and heated on a hot plate untilboiling. The suspensions were evaporated to 300 mL and 200 mL,respectively, and later reconstituted with that amount of liquid whichwas removed (i.e., with water purified by deionization and reverseosmosis (“DI/RO”) water in 200 mL and 300 mL quantities, respectively)and subsequently characterized. Additionally, in another instance, twoGB-139 suspension were again evaporated to 300mL and 200mL and thencharacterized without rehydration. It was found that these dehydrationprocesses had little to no detrimental effects on the nanocrystal sizesor nanocrystal shapes (i.e., the nanocrystal size range and nanocrystalshape distributions did not change dramatically when the GB-139 colloidwas dehydrated; or dehydrated and rehydrated to its initial goldconcentration or ppm level).

One important aspect of the invention involves the creation of at leastone adjustable plasma, which adjustable plasma is located between atleast one electrode positioned adjacent to (e.g., above) at least aportion of the surface of a liquid (e.g., water) and at least a portionof the surface of the liquid itself. The liquid is placed intoelectrical communication with at least one second electrode (or aplurality of second electrodes) causing the surface of the liquid tofunction as an electrode, thus taking part in the formation of theadjustable plasma. This configuration has certain characteristicssimilar to a dielectric barrier discharge configuration, except that thesurface of the liquid is an active electrode participant in thisconfiguration.

Each adjustable plasma utilized can be located between the at least oneelectrode located above a surface of the liquid and a surface of theliquid due to at least one electrically conductive electrode beinglocated somewhere within (e.g., at least partially within) the liquid.At least one power source (in a preferred embodiment, at least onesource of volts and amps such as a transformer or power source) isconnected electrically between the at least one electrode located abovethe surface of the liquid and the at least one electrode contacting thesurface of the liquid (e.g., located at least partially, orsubstantially completely, within the liquid). The electrode(s) may be ofany suitable composition and suitable physical configuration (e.g., sizeand shape) which results in the creation of a desirable plasma betweenthe electrode(s) located above the surface of the liquid and at least aportion of the surface of the liquid itself.

The applied power (e.g., voltage and amperage) between the electrode(s)(e.g., including the surface of the liquid functioning as at least oneelectrode for forming the plasma) can be generated by any suitablesource (e.g., voltage from a transformer) including both AC and DCsources and variants and combinations thereof. Generally, the electrodeor electrode combination located within (e.g., at least partially belowthe surface of the liquid) takes part in the creation of a plasma byproviding voltage and current to the liquid or solution. However, theadjustable plasma is actually located between at least a portion of theelectrode(s) located above the surface of the liquid (e.g., at a tip orpoint thereof) and one or more portions or areas of the liquid surfaceitself. In this regard, the adjustable plasma can be created between theaforementioned electrodes (i.e., those located above at least a portionof the surface of the liquid and a portion of the liquid surface itself)when a breakdown voltage of the gas or vapor around and/or between theelectrode(s) and the surface of the liquid is achieved or maintained.

In one embodiment of the invention, the liquid comprises water (or watercontaining certain processing enhancer(s)), and the gas between thesurface of the water and the electrode(s) above the surface of the water(i.e., that gas or atmosphere that takes part in the formation of theadjustable plasma) comprises air. The air can be controlled to containvarious different water content(s) or a desired humidity which canresult in different compositions, concentrations, crystal sizedistributions and/or crystal shape distributions of constituents (e.g.,nanocrystals) being produced according to the present invention (e.g.,different amounts of certain constituents in the adjustable plasmaand/or in the solution or suspension can be a function of the watercontent in the air located above the surface of the liquid) as well asdifferent processing times required to obtain certain concentrations ofvarious constituents in the liquid, etc. Specific aspects of theadjustable plasma 4 are discussed in greater detail in Examples 5-7.

The breakdown electric field at standard pressures and temperatures fordry air is about 3 MV/m or about 30 kV/cm. Thus, when the local electricfield around, for example, a metallic point exceeds about 30 kV/cm, aplasma can be generated in dry air. Equation (1) gives the empiricalrelationship between the breakdown electric field “Eu” and the distance“d” (in meters) between two electrodes:

$\begin{matrix}{E_{c} = {3000 + {\frac{1.35}{d}{kV}\text{/}m}}} & {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 1}\end{matrix}$

Of course, the breakdown electric field “E_(c)” will vary as a functionof the properties and composition of the gas or vapor located betweenelectrodes. In this regard, in one preferred embodiment where water (orwater containing a processing enhancer) is the liquid, significantamounts of water vapor can be inherently present in the air between the“electrodes” (i.e., between the at least one electrode located above thesurface of the water and the water surface itself which is functioningas one electrode for plasma formation) and such water vapor should havean effect on at least the breakdown electric field required to create aplasma therebetween. Further, a higher concentration of water vapor canbe caused to be present locally in and around the created plasma due tothe interaction of the adjustable plasma with the surface of the water.The amount of “humidity” present in and around the created plasma can becontrolled or adjusted by a variety of techniques discussed in greaterdetail later herein. Likewise, certain components present in any liquidcan form at least a portion of the constituents forming the adjustableplasma located between the surface of the liquid and the electrode(s)located adjacent (e.g., along) the surface of the liquid. Theconstituents in the adjustable plasma, as well as the physicalproperties of the plasma per se, can have a dramatic influence on theliquid, as well as on certain of the processing techniques (discussed ingreater detail later herein).

The electric field strengths created at and near the electrodes aretypically at a maximum at a surface of an electrode and typicallydecrease with increasing distance therefrom. In cases involving thecreation of an adjustable plasma between a surface of the liquid and theat least one electrode(s) located adjacent to (e.g., above) the liquid,a portion of the volume of gas between the electrode(s) located above asurface of a liquid and at least a portion of the liquid surface itselfcan contain a sufficient breakdown electric field to create theadjustable plasma. These created electric fields can influence, forexample, behavior of the adjustable plasma, behavior of the liquid(e.g., influence the crystal state of the liquid) behavior ofconstituents in the liquid, etc.

In this regard, FIG. 1a shows one embodiment of a point source electrode1 having a triangular cross-sectional shape located a distance “x” abovethe surface 2 of a liquid 3 flowing, for example, in the direction “F”.An adjustable plasma 4 can be generated between the tip or point 9 ofthe electrode 1 and the surface 2 of the liquid 3 when an appropriatepower source 10 is connected between the point source electrode 1 andthe electrode 5, which electrode 5 communicates with the liquid 3 (e.g.,is at least partially below the surface 2 of the liquid 3).

The adjustable plasma region 4, created in the embodiment shown inFigure la can typically have a shape corresponding to a cone-likestructure or an ellipsoid-like structure, for at least a portion of theprocess, and in some embodiments of the invention, can maintain suchshape (e.g., cone-like shape) for substantially all of the process. Thevolume, intensity, constituents (e.g., composition), activity, preciselocations, etc., of the adjustable plasma(s) 4 will vary depending on anumber of factors including, but not limited to, the distance “x”, thephysical and/or chemical composition of the electrode 1, the shape ofthe electrode 1, the power source 10 (e.g., DC, AC, rectified AC, theapplied polarity of DC and/or rectified AC, AC or DC waveform, RF,etc.), the power applied by the power source (e.g., the volts applied,which is typically 1000-5000 Volts, and more typically 1000-1500 Volts,the amps applied, electron velocity, etc.) the frequency and/ormagnitude of the electric and/or magnetic fields created by the powersource applied or ambient, electric, magnetic or electromagnetic fields,acoustic fields, the composition of the naturally occurring or suppliedgas or atmosphere (e.g., air, nitrogen, helium, oxygen, ozone, reducingatmospheres, etc.) between and/or around the electrode 1 and the surface2 of the liquid 3, temperature, pressure, volume, flow rate of theliquid 3 in the direction “F”, spectral characteristics, composition ofthe liquid 3, conductivity of the liquid 3, cross-sectional area (e.g.,volume) of the liquid near and around the electrodes 1 and 5, (e.g., theamount of time (i.e., dwell time) the liquid 3 is permitted to interactwith the adjustable plasma 4 and the intensity of such interactions),the presence of atmosphere flow (e.g., air flow) at or near the surface2 of the liquid 3 (e.g., fan(s) or atmospheric movement means provided)etc., (discussed in more detail later herein).

The composition of the electrode(s) 1 involved in the creation of theadjustable plasma(s) 4 of Figure la, in one preferred embodiment of theinvention, are metal-based compositions (e.g., metals such as goldand/or alloys or mixtures thereof, etc.), but the electrodes 1 and 5 maybe made out of any suitable material compatible with the various aspects(e.g., processing parameters) of the inventions disclosed herein. Inthis regard, while the creation of a plasma 4 in, for example, air abovethe surface 2 of a liquid 3 (e.g., water) will, typically, produce atleast some ozone, as well as amounts of nitrogen oxide and othercomponents (discussed in greater detail elsewhere herein). Theseproduced components can be controlled and may be helpful or harmful tothe formation and/or performance of the resultant constituents in theliquid (e.g., nanocrystals) and/or, nanocrystal suspensions or colloidsproduced and may need to be controlled by a variety of differenttechniques, discussed in more detail later herein. Further, the emissionspectrum of each plasma 4, as shown for example in Examples 5-7, is alsoa function of similar factors (discussed in greater detail laterherein). As shown in Figure la, the adjustable plasma 4 actuallycontacts the surface 2 of the liquid 3. In this embodiment of theinvention, material (e.g., metal) from the electrode 1 may comprise aportion of the adjustable plasma 4 (e.g., and thus be part of theemission spectrum of the plasma) and may be caused, for example, to be“sputtered” onto and/or into the liquid 3 (e.g., water). Accordingly,when metal(s) are used as the electrode(s) 1, a variety of constituents(such as those shown in Examples 5-7) can be formed in the electricalplasma, resulting in certain constituents becoming part of theprocessing liquid 3 (e.g., water), including, but not limited to,elementary metal(s), metal ions, Lewis acids, Bronsted-Lowry acids,metal oxides, metal nitrides, metal hydrides, metal hydrates and/ormetal carbides, etc., can be found in the liquid 3 (e.g., for at least aportion of the process and may be capable of being involved insimultaneous/subsequent reactions), depending upon the particular set ofoperating conditions associated with the adjustable plasma 4 and/orsubsequent electrochemical processing operations. Such constituents maybe transiently present in the processing liquid 3 or may besemi-permanent or permanent. If such constituents are transient orsemi-permanent, then the timing of subsequent reactions (e.g.,electrochemical reactions) with such formed constituents can influencefinal products produced. If such constituents are permanent, they shouldnot adversely affect the desired performance of the active ingredientnanocrystals.

Further, depending on, for example, electric, magnetic and/orelectromagnetic field strength in and around the liquid 3 and the volumeof liquid 3 exposed to such fields (discussed in greater detailelsewhere herein), the physical and chemical construction of theelectrode(s) 1 and 5, atmosphere (naturally occurring or supplied),liquid composition, greater or lesser amounts of electrode(s)materials(s) (e.g., metal(s) or derivatives of metals) may be found inthe liquid 3. In certain situations, the material(s) (e.g., metal(s) ormetal(s) composite(s)) or constituents (e.g., Lewis acids,Bronsted-Lowry acids, etc.) found in the liquid 3 (permanently ortransiently), or in the plasma 4, may have very desirable effects, inwhich case relatively large amounts of such materials will be desirable;whereas in other cases, certain materials found in the liquid 3 (e.g.,by -products) may have undesirable effects, and thus minimal amounts ofsuch materials may be desired in the liquid-based final product.Accordingly, electrode composition can play an important role in thematerials that are formed according to the embodiments disclosed herein.The interplay between these components of the invention are discussed ingreater detail later herein. Still further, the electrode(s) 1 and 5 maybe of similar chemical composition (e.g., have the same chemical elementas their primary constituent) and/or mechanical configuration orcompletely different compositions (e.g., have different chemicalelements as their primary constituent) in order to achieve variouscompositions and/ or structures of liquids and/or specific effectsdiscussed later herein.

The distance “y” between the electrode(s) 1 and 5; or 1 and 1 (shownlater herein) or 5 and 5 (shown later herein) is one important aspect ofthe invention. In general, when working with power sources capable ofgenerating a plasma under the operating condition, the location of thesmallest distance “y” between the closest portions of the electrode(s)used in the present invention should be greater than the distance “x” inorder to prevent an undesirable arc or formation of an unwanted coronaor plasma occurring between the electrode (e.g., the electrode(s) 1 andthe electrode(s) 5) (unless some type of electrical insulation isprovided therebetween). Features of the invention relating to electrodedesign, electrode location and electrode interactions between a varietyof electrodes are discussed in greater detail later herein.

The power applied through the power source 10 may be any suitable powerwhich creates a desirable adjustable plasma 4 under all of the processconditions of the present invention. In one preferred mode of theinvention, an alternating current from a step-up transformer isutilized. Preferred transformer(s) 60 (see e.g., FIGS. 16d-16l ) for usein various embodiments disclosed herein, have deliberately poor outputvoltage regulation made possible by the use of magnetic shunts in thetransformer 60. These transformers 60 are known as neon signtransformers. This configuration limits current flow into theelectrode(s) 1/5. With a large change in output load voltage, thetransformer 60 maintains output load current within a relatively narrowrange.

The transformer 60 is rated for its secondary open circuit voltage andsecondary short circuit current. Open circuit voltage (OCV) appears atthe output terminals of the transformer 60 only when no electricalconnection is present. Likewise, short circuit current is only drawnfrom the output terminals if a short is placed across those terminals(in which case the output voltage equals zero). However, when a load isconnected across these same terminals, the output voltage of thetransformer 60 should fall somewhere between zero and the rated OCV. Infact, if the transformer 60 is loaded properly, that voltage will beabout half the rated OCV.

The transformer 60 is known as a Balanced Mid-Point Referenced Design(e.g., also formerly known as balanced midpoint grounded). This is mostcommonly found in mid to higher voltage rated transformers and most 60mA transformers. This is the only type transformer acceptable in a“mid-point return wired” system. The “balanced” transformer 60 has oneprimary coil 601 with two secondary coils 603, one on each side of theprimary coil 601 (as shown generally in the schematic view in FIG. 16g). This transformer 60 can in many ways perform like two transformers.Just as the unbalanced midpoint referenced core and coil, one end ofeach secondary coil 603 is attached to the core 602 and subsequently tothe transformer enclosure and the other end of each secondary coil 603is attached to an output lead or terminal. Thus, with no connectorpresent, an unloaded 15,000-volt transformer of this type, will measureabout 7,500 volts from each secondary terminal to the transformerenclosure but will measure about 15,000 volts between the two outputterminals. These exemplary transformers 60 were utilized to form theplasmas 4 disclosed in the Examples herein. However, other suitabletransformers (or power sources) should also be understood as fallingwithin the metes and bounds of the invention. Further, thesetransformers 60 are utilized exclusively in Examples 1-4 herein.However, different AC transformers 50 and 50 a (discussed elsewhereherein) are utilized for the electrodes 5/5′ in most of the otherexamples disclosed herein.

In another preferred embodiment, a rectified AC source creates apositively charged electrode 1 and a negatively charged surface 2 of theliquid 3. In another preferred embodiment, a rectified AC source createsa negatively charged electrode 1 and a positively charged surface 2 ofthe liquid 3. Further, other power sources such as RF power sourcesand/or microwave power sources can also be used with the presentinvention. In general, the combination of electrode(s) components 1 and5, physical size and shape of the electrode(s) 1 and 5, electrodemanufacturing process, mass of electrodes 1 and/or 5, the distance “x”between the tip 9 of electrode 1 above the surface 2 of the liquid 3,the composition of the gas between the electrode tip 9 and the surface2, the flow rate (if any) and/or flow direction “F” of the liquid 3, theamount of liquid 3 provided, type of power source 10, frequency and/orwaveform of the power output of the power source 10, all contribute tothe design, and thus power requirements (e.g., breakdown electric field)required to obtain a controlled or adjustable plasma 4 between thesurface 2 of the liquid 3 and the electrode tip 9.

In further reference to the configurations shown in FIG. 1 a, electrodeholders 6 a and 6 b are capable of being lowered and raised by anysuitable means (and thus the electrodes are capable of being lowered andraised). For example, the electrode holders 6 a and 6 b are capable ofbeing lowered and raised in and through an insulating member 8 (shown incross-section). The mechanical embodiment shown here includesmale/female screw threads. The portions 6 a and 6 b can be covered by,for example, additional electrical insulating portions 7 a and 7 b. Theelectrical insulating portions 7 a and 7 b can be any suitable material(e.g., plastic, polycarbonate, poly (methyl methacrylate), polystyrene,acrylics, polyvinylchloride (PVC), nylon, rubber, fibrous materials,etc.) which prevent undesirable currents, voltage, arcing, etc., thatcould occur when an individual interfaces with the electrode holders 6 aand 6 b (e.g., attempts to adjust the height of the electrodes) .Likewise, the insulating member 8 can be made of any suitable materialwhich prevents undesirable electrical events (e.g., arcing, melting,etc.) from occurring, as well as any material which is structurally andenvironmentally suitable for practicing the present invention. Typicalmaterials include structural plastics such as polycarbonates, plexiglass(poly (methyl methacrylate), polystyrene, acrylics, and the like.Additional suitable materials for use with the present invention arediscussed in greater detail elsewhere herein.

FIG. 1c shows another embodiment for raising and lowering the electrodes1, 5. In this embodiment, electrical insulating portions 7 a and 7 b ofeach electrode are held in place by a pressure fit existing between thefriction mechanism 13 a, 13 b and 13 c, and the portions 7 a and 7 b.The friction mechanism 13 a, 13 b and 13c could be made of, for example,spring steel, flexible rubber, etc., so long as sufficient contact orfriction is maintained therebetween.

Preferred techniques for automatically raising and/or lowering theelectrodes 1, 5 are discussed later herein. The power source 10 can beconnected in any convenient electrical manner to the electrodes 1 and 5.For example, wires 11 a and 11 b can be located within at least aportion of the electrode holders 6a, 6 b (and/or electrical insulatingportions 7 a, 7 b) with a primary goal being achieving electricalconnections between the portions 11 a, 11 b and thus the electrodes 1,5.

FIG. 2a shows another schematic of a preferred embodiment of theinvention, wherein an inventive control device 20 is connected to theelectrodes 1 and 5, such that the control device 20 remotely (e.g., uponcommand from another device or component) raises and/or lowers theelectrodes 1, 5 relative to the surface 2 of the liquid 3. The inventivecontrol device 20 is discussed in more detail later herein. In this onepreferred aspect of the invention, the electrodes 1 and 5 can be, forexample, remotely lowered and controlled, and can also be monitored andcontrolled by a suitable controller or computer (not shown in FIG. 2a )containing an appropriate software program (discussed in detail laterherein). In this regard, FIG. 2b shows an electrode configurationsimilar to that shown in FIG. 2a , except that a Taylor Cone “T” isutilized for electrical connection between the electrode 5 and thesurface 2 (or effective surface 2′) of the liquid 3. Accordingly, theembodiments shown in FIGS. 1 a, 1 b and 1 c should be considered to be amanually controlled apparatus for use with the techniques of the presentinvention, whereas the embodiments shown in FIGS. 2a and 2b should beconsidered to include an automatic apparatus or assembly 20 which canremotely raise and lower the electrodes 1 and 5 in response toappropriate commands. Further, the FIG. 2a and FIG. 2b preferredembodiments of the invention can also employ computer monitoring andcomputer control of the distance “x” of the tips 9 of the electrodes 1(and tips 9′ of the electrodes 5) away from the surface 2; or computermonitoring and/or controlling the rate(s) which the electrode 5 isadvanced into/through the liquid 3 (discussed in greater detail laterherein). Thus, the appropriate commands for raising and/or lowering theelectrodes 1 and 5 can come from an individual operator and/or asuitable control device such as a controller or a computer (not shown inFIG. 2a ).

FIG. 3a corresponds in large part to FIGS. 2a and 2b , however, FIGS.3b, 3c and 3d show various alternative electrode configurations that canbe utilized in connection with certain preferred embodiments of theinvention. FIG. 3b shows essentially a mirror image electrode assemblyfrom that electrode assembly shown in FIG. 3a . In particular, as shownin FIG. 3b , with regard to the direction “F” corresponding to the flowdirection of the liquid 3, the electrode 5 is the first electrode whichcommunicates with the fluid 3 when flowing in the longitudinal direction“F” and contact with the plasma 4 created at the electrode 1 follows.FIG. 3c shows two electrodes 5 a and 5 b located within the fluid 3.This particular electrode configuration corresponds to another preferredembodiment of the invention. In particular, as discussed in greaterdetail herein, the electrode configuration shown in FIG. 3c can be usedalone, or in combination with, for example, the electrode configurationsshown in FIGS. 3a and 3b . Similarly, a fourth possible electrodeconfiguration is shown in FIG. 3d . In this FIG. 3d , no electrode(s) 5are shown, but rather only electrodes 1 a and 1 b are shown. In thiscase, two adjustable plasmas 4 a and 4 b are present between theelectrode tips 9 a and 9 b and the surface 2 of the liquid 3. Thedistances “xa” and “xb” can be about the same or can be substantiallydifferent, as long as each distance “xa” and “xb” does not exceed themaximum distance for which a plasma 4 can be formed between theelectrode tips 9 a/9 b and the surface 2 of the liquid 3. As discussedabove, the electrode configuration shown in FIG. 3d can be used alone,or in combination with one or more of the electrode configurations shownin FIGS. 3a, 3b and 3c . The desirability of utilizing particularelectrode configurations in combination with each other with regard tothe fluid flow direction “F” is discussed in greater detail laterherein.

Likewise, a set of manually controllable electrode configurations,corresponding generally to Figure la, are shown in FIGS. 4a, 4b, 4c and4d , all of which are shown in a partial cross-sectional view.Specifically, FIG. 4a corresponds to Figure la. Moreover, FIG. 4bcorresponds in electrode configuration to the electrode configurationshown in FIG. 3b ; FIG. 4c corresponds to FIG. 3c and FIG. 4dcorresponds to FIG. 3d . In essence, the manual electrode configurationsshown in FIGS. 4a-4d can functionally result in similar materialsproduced according to certain inventive aspects of the invention asthose materials produced corresponding to remotely adjustable (e.g.,remote-controlled by computer or controller means) electrodeconfigurations shown in FIGS. 3a -3 d. The desirability of utilizingvarious electrode configuration combinations is discussed in greaterdetail later herein.

FIGS. 5a -5e show perspective views of various desirable electrodeconfigurations for the electrode 1 shown in FIGS. 1-4 (as well as inother Figures and embodiments discussed later herein). The electrodeconfigurations shown in FIGS. 5a-5e are representative of a number ofdifferent configurations that are useful in various embodiments of thepresent invention. Criteria for appropriate electrode selection for theelectrode 1 include, but are not limited to the following conditions:the need for a very well defined tip or point 9, composition, mechanicallimitations, the ability to make shapes from the material comprising theelectrode 1, conditioning (e.g., heat treating or annealing) of thematerial comprising the electrode 1, convenience, the constituentsintroduced into the plasma 4, the influence upon the liquid 3, etc. Inthis regard, a small mass of material comprising the electrodes 1 shownin, for example, FIGS. 1-4 may, upon creation of the adjustable plasmas4 according to the present invention (discussed in greater detail laterherein), rise to operating temperatures where the size and or shape ofthe electrode(s) 1 can be adversely affected. In this regard, forexample, if the electrode 1 was of relatively small mass (e.g., if theelectrode(s) 1 was made of gold and weighed about 0.5 gram or less) andincluded a very fine point as the tip 9, then it is possible that undercertain sets of conditions used in various embodiments herein that afine point (e.g., a thin wire having a diameter of only a fewmillimeters and exposed to a few hundred to a few thousand volts; or atriangular-shaped piece of metal) would be incapable of functioning asthe electrode 1 (e.g., the electrode 1 could deform undesirably ormelt), absent some type of additional interactions (e.g., internalcooling means or external cooling means such as a fan, etc.).Accordingly, the composition of (e.g., the material comprising) theelectrode(s) 1 may affect possible suitable electrode physical shape dueto, for example, melting points, pressure sensitivities, environmentalreactions (e.g., the local environment of the adjustable plasma 4 couldcause undesirable chemical, mechanical and/or electrochemical erosion ofthe electrode(s)), etc.

Moreover, it should be understood that in alternative preferredembodiments of the invention, well defined sharp points are not alwaysrequired for the tip 9. In this regard, the electrode 1 shown in FIG. 5ecomprises a rounded tip 9. It should be noted that partially rounded orarc-shaped electrodes can also function as the electrode 1 because theadjustable plasma 4, which is created in the inventive embodiments shownherein (see, for example, FIGS. 1-4), can be created from roundedelectrodes or electrodes with sharper or more pointed features. Duringthe practice of the inventive techniques of the present invention, suchadjustable plasmas can be positioned or can be located along variouspoints of the electrode 1 shown in FIG. 5e . In this regard, FIG. 6shows a variety of points “a-g” which correspond to initiating points 9for the plasmas 4a-4g which occur between the electrode 1 and thesurface 2 of the liquid 3. Accordingly, it should be understood that avariety of sizes and shapes corresponding to electrode 1 can be utilizedin accordance with the teachings of the present invention. Stillfurther, it should be noted that the tips 9, 9′ of the electrodes 1 and5, respectively, shown in various Figures herein, may be shown as arelatively sharp point or a relatively blunt end. Unless specificaspects of these electrode tips 9, 9′ are discussed in greatercontextual detail, the actual shape of the electrode tip(s) 9, 9′ shownin the Figures should not be given great significance.

FIG. 7a shows a cross-sectional perspective view of the electrodeconfiguration corresponding to that shown in FIG. 2a (and FIG. 3a )contained within a trough member 30. This trough member 30 has a liquid3 supplied into it from the back side identified as 31 of FIG. 7a andthe flow direction “F” is out of the page toward the reader and towardthe cross-sectioned area identified as 32. The trough member 30 is shownhere as a unitary piece of one material, but could be made from aplurality of materials fitted together and, for example, fixed (e.g.,glued, mechanically attached, etc.) by any acceptable means forattaching materials to each other. Further, the trough member 30 shownhere is of a rectangular or square cross-sectional shape, but maycomprise a variety of different and more desirable cross-sectionalshapes (discussed in greater detail later herein). Accordingly, the flowdirection of the fluid 3 is out of the page toward the reader and theliquid 3 flows past each of the electrodes 1 and 5, which are, in thisembodiment, located substantially in line with each other relative tothe longitudinal flow direction “F” of the fluid 3 within the troughmember 30. This causes the liquid 3 to first experience an adjustableplasma interaction with the adjustable plasma 4 (e.g., a conditioningreaction) and subsequently then the conditioned fluid 3 is permitted tointeract with the electrode(s) 5. Specific desirable aspects of theseelectrode/liquid interactions and electrode placement(s) or electrodelocations within the trough member 30 are discussed in greater detailelsewhere herein.

FIG. 7b shows a cross-sectional perspective view of the electrodeconfiguration shown in FIG. 2a (as well as in FIG. 3a ), however, theseelectrodes 1 and 5 are rotated on the page 90 degrees relative to theelectrodes 1 and 5 shown in FIGS. 2a and 3a . In this embodiment of theinvention, the liquid 3 contacts the adjustable plasma 4 generatedbetween the electrode 1 and the surface 2 of the liquid 3, and theelectrode 5 at substantially the same point along the longitudinal flowdirection “F” (i.e., out of the page) of the trough member 30. Thedirection of liquid 3 flow is longitudinally along the trough member 30and is out of the paper toward the reader, as in FIG. 7a . Variousdesirable aspects of this electrode configuration are discussed ingreater detail later herein.

FIG. 8a shows a cross-sectional perspective view of the same embodimentshown in FIG. 7a . In this embodiment, as in FIG. 7a , the fluid 3 firstinteracts with the adjustable plasma 4 created between the electrode 1and the surface 2 of the liquid 3. Thereafter the plasma influenced orconditioned fluid 3, having been changed (e.g., conditioned, modified,or prepared) by the adjustable plasma 4, thereafter communicates withthe electrode(s) 5 thus permitting various electrochemical reactions tooccur, such reactions being influenced by the state (e.g., chemicalcomposition, pH, physical or crystal structure, excited state(s), etc.,of the fluid 3 (and constituents, semi-permanent or permanent, withinthe fluid 3)) discussed in greater detail elsewhere herein. Analternative embodiment is shown in FIG. 8b . This embodiment essentiallycorresponds in general arrangement to those embodiments shown in FIGS.3b and 4b . In this embodiment, the fluid 3 first communicates with theelectrode 5, and thereafter the fluid 3 communicates with the adjustableplasma 4 created between the electrode 1 and the surface 2 of the liquid3. In this embodiment, the fluid 3 may have been previously modifiedprior to interacting with the electrode 5.

FIG. 8c shows a cross-sectional perspective view of two electrodes 5 aand 5 b (corresponding to the embodiments shown in FIGS. 3c and 4c )wherein the longitudinal flow direction “F” of the fluid 3 contacts thefirst electrode 5 a and thereafter contacts the second electrode 5 b inthe direction “F” of fluid flow.

Likewise, FIG. 8d is a cross-sectional perspective view and correspondsto the embodiments shown in FIGS. 3d and 4d . In this embodiment, thefluid 3 communicates with a first adjustable plasma 4 a created by afirst electrode la and thereafter communicates with a second adjustableplasma 4 b created between a second electrode lb and the surface 2 ofthe fluid 3.

FIG. 9a shows a cross-sectional perspective view and corresponds to theelectrode configuration shown in FIG. 7b (and generally to the electrodeconfiguration shown in FIGS. 3a and 4a but is rotated 90 degreesrelative thereto). All of the electrode configurations shown in FIGS.9a-9d are situated such that the electrode pairs shown are locatedsubstantially at the same longitudinal point along the trough member 30,as in FIG. 7 b.

Likewise, FIG. 9b corresponds generally to the electrode configurationshown in FIGS. 3b and 4b , and is rotated 90 degrees relative to theconfiguration shown in FIG. 8 b.

FIG. 9c shows an electrode configuration corresponding generally toFIGS. 3c and 4c , and is rotated 90 degrees relative to the electrodeconfiguration shown in FIG. 8 c.

FIG. 9d shows an electrode configuration corresponding generally toFIGS. 3d and 4d and is rotated 90 degrees relative to the electrodeconfiguration shown in FIG. 8 d.

The electrode configurations shown generally in FIGS. 7, 8 and 9, allcan create different results (e.g., different conditioning effects forthe fluid 3, different pH's in the fluid 3, different nanocrystals sizesand size distribution, different nanocrystal shapes and nanocrystalshape distributions, and/or amounts of constituents (e.g., nanocrystalmatter) found in the fluid 3, different functioning of the fluid/nanocrystal combinations (e.g., different biologic/biocatalyticeffects), different zeta potentials, etc.) as a function of a variety offeatures including the electrode orientation and position relative tothe fluid flow direction “F”, cross-sectional shape and size of thetrough member 30, and/or amount of the liquid 3 within the trough member30 and/or rate of flow of the liquid 3 within the trough member 30 andin/around the electrodes 5 a/5 b, the thickness of the electrodes, thenumber of electrode pairs provided and their positioning in the troughmember 30 relative to each other as well as their depth into the liquid3 (i.e., amount of contact with the liquid 3), the rate of movement ofthe electrodes into/through the liquid 3 (which maintains or adjusts thesurface profile or shape if the electrodes), the power applied to theelectrode pairs, etc. Further, the electrode compositions, size,specific shape(s), number of different types of electrodes provided,voltage applied, amperage applied and/or achieved within the liquid 3,AC source (and AC source frequency and AC waveform shape, duty cycle,etc.), DC source, RF source (and RF source frequency, duty cycle, etc.),electrode polarity, etc., can all influence the properties of the liquid3 (and/or the nanocrystals formed or contained in the liquid 3) as theliquid 3 contacts, interacts with and/or flows past these electrodes 1,5 and hence resultant properties of the materials (e.g., thenanocrystals produced and/or the suspension or colloid) producedtherefrom. Additionally, the liquid-containing trough member 30, in somepreferred embodiments, contains a plurality of the electrodecombinations shown in FIGS. 7, 8 and 9. These electrode assemblies maybe all the same configuration or may be a combination of variousdifferent electrode configurations (discussed in greater detailelsewhere herein). Moreover, the electrode configurations maysequentially communicate with the fluid “F” or may simultaneously, or inparallel communicate with the fluid “F”. Different exemplary andpreferred electrode configurations are shown in additional figures laterherein and are discussed in greater detail later herein in conjunctionwith different constituents formed (e.g., nanocrystals and solutions ornanocrystal suspensions or colloids produced therefrom).

FIG. 10a shows a cross-sectional view of the liquid containing troughmember 30 shown in FIGS. 7, 8 and 9. This trough member 30 has across-section corresponding to that of a rectangle or a square and theelectrodes (not shown in FIG. 10a ) can be suitably positioned therein.

Likewise, several additional alternative cross-sectional embodiments forthe liquid-containing trough member 30 are shown in FIGS. 10b, 10c, 10dand 10e . The distance “S” and “S′” for the preferred embodiment shownin each of FIGS. 10a-10e measures, for example, between about 0.25″ andabout 6″ (about 0.6 cm-15 cm). The distance “M” ranges from about 0.25″to about 6″ (about 0.6 cm-15 cm). The distance “R” ranges from about ½″to about 7″ (about 1.2 cm to about 17.8 cm). All of these embodiments(as well as additional configurations that represent alternativeembodiments are within the metes and bounds of this inventive disclosurecan be utilized in combination with the other inventive aspects of theinvention. It should be noted that the amount of liquid 3 containedwithin each of the liquid containing trough members 30 is a function notonly of the depth “d”, but also a function of the actual cross-section.Briefly, the amount of liquid 3 present in and around the electrode(s) 1and 5 can influence one or more effects of the adjustable plasma 4 uponthe liquid 3 as well as the electrochemical interaction(s) of theelectrode 5 with the liquid 3. Further, the flow rate of the liquid 3 inand around the electrode(s) 1 and 5 can also influence many ofproperties of the nanocrystals formed in the resulting colloids orsuspensions. These effects include not only adjustable plasma 4conditioning effects (e.g., interactions of the plasma electric andmagnetic fields, interactions of the electromagnetic radiation of theplasma, creation of various chemical species (e.g., Lewis acids,Bronsted-Lowry acids) within the liquid, pH changes, temperaturevariations of the liquid (e.g., slower liquid flow can result in higherliquid temperatures and/or longer contact or dwell time with or aroundthe electrodes 1/5 which can also desirably influence final productsproduced, such as size/shape of the formed nanocrystals, etc.) upon theliquid 3, but also the concentration or interaction of the adjustableplasma 4 with the liquid 3. Similarly, the influence of many aspects ofthe electrode 5 on the liquid 3 (e.g., electrochemical interactions,temperature, etc.) is also, at least partially, a function of the amountof liquid juxtaposed to the electrode(s) 5. All of these factors caninfluence a balance which exists between nucleation and growth of thenanocrystals grown in the liquid 3, resulting in, for example, particlesize and size range control and/or particle shape and shape rangecontrol.

Further, strong electric and magnetic field concentrations will alsoaffect the interaction of the plasma 4 with the liquid 3 as well asaffect the interaction of the electrode 5 with the liquid 3. Someimportant aspects of these important interactions are discussed ingreater detail elsewhere herein. Further, a trough member 30 maycomprise more than one cross-sectional shape along its entirelongitudinal length. The incorporation of multiple cross-sectionalshapes along the longitudinal length of a trough member 30 can resultin, for example, varying the field or concentration or reaction effects(e.g., crystal growth/nucleation effects) being produced by theinventive embodiments disclosed herein (discussed in greater detailelsewhere herein). Further, a trough member 30 may not be linear or“I-shaped”, but rather may be “Y-shaped” or “Ψ-shaped”, with eachportion of the “Y” (or “Ψ”) having a different (or similar)cross-sectional shape and/or set of dimensions and/or set of reactionconditions occurring therein.

Also, the initial temperature of the liquid 3 input into the troughmember 30 can also affect a variety of properties of products producedaccording to the disclosure herein. For example, different temperaturesof the liquid 3 can affect nanocrystal size(s) and nanocrystal shape(s),concentration or amounts of various formed constituents (e.g.,transient, semi-permanent or permanent constituents), pH, zetapotential, etc. Likewise, temperature controls along at least a portionof, or substantially all of, the trough member 30 can have desirableeffects. For example, by providing localized cooling, resultantproperties of products formed (e.g., nanocrystal size(s) and/ornanocrystal shape(s)) can be controlled. Preferable liquid 3temperatures during the processing thereof are between freezing andboiling points, more typically, between room temperature and boilingpoints, and even more typically, between about 40-98 degrees C., andmore typically, between about 50-98 degrees C. Such temperature can becontrolled by, for example, conventional means for cooling located at ornear various portions of the processing apparatus.

Further, certain processing enhancers may also be added to or mixed withthe liquid(s) 3. The processing enhancers include both solids andliquids (and gases in some cases). The processing enhancer(s) mayprovide certain processing advantages and/or desirable final productcharacteristics. Some portion of the processing enhancer(s) mayfunction, influence as or become part of, for example, desirable seedcrystals (or promote desirable seed crystals, or be involved in thecreation of a nucleation site) and/or crystal plane growthpromoters/preventers in the electrochemical growth processes of theinvention; or may simply function as a current or power regulator in theelectrochemical processes of the invention. Such processing enhancersmay also desirably affect current and/or voltage conditions betweenelectrodes 1/5 and/or 5/5.

A preferred processing enhancer is sodium bicarbonate. Examples of otherprocess enhancers are sodium carbonate, potassium bicarbonate, potassiumcarbonate, trisodium phosphate, disodium phosphate, monosodiumphosphate, potassium phosphates or other salts of carbonic acid or thelike. Further process enhancers may be salts, including sodium orpotassium, of bisulfate or sulfite. Still other process enhancers tomake gold nanocrystals for medical applications under certain conditionsmay be other salts, including sodium or potassium, or any material thatassists in the electrochemical growth processes described herein; andany material is not substantially incorporated into or onto the surfaceof the gold nanocrystals; and does not impart toxicity to thenanocrystals or to the suspension containing the nanocrystals.Processing enhancers may assist in one or more of the electrochemicalreactions disclosed herein; and/or may assist in achieving one or moredesirable properties in products formed according to the teachingsherein.

For example, certain processing enhancers may dissociate into positiveions (cations) and negative ions (anions). The anions and/or cations,depending on a variety of factors including liquid composition,concentration of ions, applied fields, frequency of applied fields,waveform of the applied filed, temperature, pH, zeta potential, etc.,will navigate or move toward oppositely charged electrodes. When saidions are located at or near such electrodes, the ions may take part inone or more reactions with the electrode(s) and/or other constituent(s)located at or near such electrode(s). Sometimes ions may react with oneor more materials in the electrode (e.g., when NaCl is used as aprocessing enhancer, various metal chloride (MCl, MCl₂, etc.) may form).Such reactions may be desirable in some cases or undesirable in others.Further, sometimes ions present in a solution between electrodes may notreact to form a product such as MCl, MCl₂, etc., but rather mayinfluence material in the electrode (or near the electrode) to formmetallic nano-crystals that are “grown” from material provided by theelectrode. For example, certain metal ions may enter the liquid 3 fromthe electrode 5 and be caused to come together (e.g., nucleate) to formconstituents (e.g., ions, nanocrystals, etc.) within the liquid 3.

In the case of gold, a variety of extended surface planes from whichcrystal growth can occur are available, so long as impurities (such as,for example organic impurities) do not inhibit or prevent such growth.While gold is known to have a face centered cubic (fcc) structure, goldnanocrystals which are grown according to the methods of the presentinvention, are not single crystals and are typically twinned to resultin a variety of desirable and highly reactive nanocrystalline shapes orshape distributions. For example, single crystal surfaces {111}, {100}and {110} are among the most frequently studied and well understoodsurfaces. The presence of certain species such as ions (e.g., added toor being donated by electrode 5) in an electrochemical crystalnucleation/growth process can influence (e.g., nucleate and/or promotegrowth of specifically-shaped nanocrystals or nanocrystal shapedistributions) the presence or absence of one or more of such extendedsurfaces. A certain ion (e.g., anion) under certain field conditions mayassist in the presence of more {111} extended surfaces or planesrelative to other crystal surfaces which can result in the presence ofcertain nanocrystalline shapes relative to other shapes (e.g., moredecahedron shapes relative to other shapes such as tetrahedrons,icosahedrons, octahedrons; or the combination(s) of certain crystallineshapes relative to other crystalline shapes, etc.). By controlling thepresence or absence (e.g., relative amounts) of such faces, crystalshapes (e.g., hexagonal plates, octahedrons, tetrahedrons and pentagonalbipyramids (i.e., decahedrons)) and/or crystal sizes or extended crystalplanes which contain such faces, nanocrystal shapes, can thus berelatively controlled. Control of the size and shape of nanocrystals (aswell as the surface properties of nanocrystals) can control theirfunction(s) in a variety of systems, including biological systems.

Specifically, the presence of certain nanocrystalline shapes (or shapedistributions) containing specific spatially extended low index crystalplanes can cause different reactions (e.g., different biocatalyticand/or biophysical reactions and/or cause different biological signalingpathways to be active/inactive relative to the absence of such shapednanoparticles) and/or different reactions selectively to occur undersubstantially identical conditions. One crystalline shape of a goldnanoparticle (e.g., a pentagonal by-pyramidal structure, or decahedron,or tetrahedron containing {111} planes) can result in one set ofreactions to occur (e.g., binding to a particular protein or homologueand/or affecting a particular biological signaling pathway of a proteinor a cytokine) whereas a different crystal shape (e.g., a octahedroncontaining the same or different crystal planes such as {111} or {100})can result in a different reaction endpoint (i.e., a differentbiocatalytic or signaling pathway effect). More dramatically, the lackof any extended crystal growth plane results in a spherical-shapednanoparticle (e.g., such as those made by classical homogenous chemicalreduction processes) significantly affects the performance of thenanoparticle (e.g., relative to an extended plane nanocrystal). Suchdifferences in performance may be due to differing surface plasmonresonances and/or intensity of such resonances. Thus, by controllingamount (e.g., concentration), nanocrystal sizes, the presence or absenceof certain extended growth crystal planes, and/or nanocrystalline shapesor shape distribution(s), certain reactions (e.g., biological reactionsand/or biological signaling pathways) can be desirably influenced and/orcontrolled. Such control can result in the prevention and/or treatmentof a variety of different diseases or indications that are a function ofcertain biologic reactions and/or signaling pathways (discussed laterherein).

Further, certain processing enhancers may also include materials thatmay function as charge carriers, but may themselves not be ions.Specifically, metallic-based particles, either introduced or formed insitu (e.g., heterogeneous or homogenous nucleation/growth) by theelectrochemical processing techniques disclosed herein, can alsofunction as charge carriers, crystal nucleators and/or growth promoters,which may result in the formation of a variety of different crystallineshapes (e.g., hexagonal plates, octahedrons, tetrahedrons, pentagonalbi-pyramids (decahedrons), etc.). Once again, the presence of particularparticle crystal sizes, extended crystal planes and/or shapes or shapedistributions of such crystals, can desirably influence certainreactions (e.g., binding to a particular protein or protein homologueand/or affecting a particular biological signaling pathway such as aninflammatory pathway or a proteasomal pathway) to occur. Further, sincethe processing enhancers of the present invention do not contemplatethose traditional organic-based molecules used in traditional reductionchemistry techniques, the lack of such chemical reductant (or addedsurfactant) means that the surfaces of the grown nanocrystals on theinvention are very “clean” relative to nanoparticles that are formed bytraditional reduction chemistry approaches. It should be understood thatwhen the term “clean” is used with regard to nanocrystal surfaces orwhen the phrase “substantially free from organic impurities or films”(or a similar phrase) is used, what is meant is that the formednanocrystals do not have chemical constituents adhered or attached totheir surfaces which (1) alter the functioning of the nanocrystal and/or(2) form a layer, surface or film which covers a significant portion(e.g., at least 25% of the crystal, or more typically, at least 50% ofthe crystal). In preferred embodiments, the nanocrystal surfaces arecompletely free of any organic contaminants which materially changetheir functionality. It should be further understood that incidentalcomponents that are caused to adhere to nanocrystals of the inventionand do not adversely or materially affect the functioning of theinventive nanocrystals, should still be considered to be within themetes and bounds of the invention. One example of a nanocrystal surfacethat is completely free from organic impurities or films is shown inExample 5 herein.

The lack of added chemicals (e.g., organics) permits the growth of thegold atoms into the extended crystal planes resulting in the novelcrystalline shape distributions and also affects the performance of thenanocrystals in vivo (e.g., affects the protein corona formed around thenanoparticles/nanocrystals in, for example, serum). For example, butwithout wishing to be bound by any particular theory or explanation,protein corona formation can control location of ananoparticle/nanocrystal in vivo, as well as control protein folding ofproteins at or near the nanoparticle/nanocrystal surfaces. Suchdifferences in performance may be due to such factors including, but notlimited to, surface charge, surface plasmon resonance, epitaxialeffects, surface double layers, zones of influence, and others.

Still further, once a seed crystal occurs in the process and/or a set ofextended crystal planes begins to grow (e.g., homogenous nucleation) ora seed crystal is separately provided (e.g., heterogenous nucleation)the amount of time that a formed particle (e.g., a metal atom) ispermitted to dwell at or near one or more electrodes in anelectrochemical process can result in the size of such nanocrystalsincreasing as a function of time (e.g., metal atoms can assemble intometal nanocrystals and, if unimpeded by certain organic constituents inthe liquid, they can grow into a variety of shapes and sizes). Theamount of time that crystal nucleation/growth conditions are present cancontrol the shape(s) and sizes(s) of grown nanocrystals. Accordingly,dwell time at/around electrodes, liquid flow rate(s) , troughcross-sectional shape(s), etc, all contribute to nanocrystal growthconditions, as discussed elsewhere herein.

In a preferred embodiment the percent of pentagonal bipyramids is atleast about 5%, or is in a range of about 5%-35%, and more typically atleast about 10%, or is in a range of about 10% -35%, and even moretypically, at least about 15%, or is in a range of about 15%-35%, andstill more typically, at least about 25%, and in some cases at leastabout 30%.

In another preferred embodiment the percent of tetrahedrons is at least5%, or is in a range of about 5%-35%, and more typically at least about10%, or is in a range of about 10%-35%, and even more typically, atleast about 15%, or is in a range of about 15%-35%, and still moretypically, at least about 25%, and in some cases at least about 30%.

Still further, the combination of pentagonal bipyramids and tetrahedronsis at least about 15%, or is in a range of about 15%-50%, and moretypically at least about 20%, or is in a range of about 20%-50%, andeven more typically, at least about 30%, or is in a range of about30%-50%, and still more typically, at least about 35%, and in some casesat least about 45%.

Still further, the combination of pentagonal bipyramids, tetrahedrons,octahedrons and hexagonal is at least about 50%, or is in a range ofabout 50%-85%, and more typically at least about 60%, or is in a rangeof about 60%-85%, and even more typically, at least about 70%, or is ina range of about 70%-85%, and still more typically, at least about 70%,and in some cases at least about 80%.

In many of the preferred embodiments herein, one or more AC sources areutilized. The rate of change from “+” polarity on one electrode to “−”polarity on the same electrode is known as Hertz, Hz, frequency, orcycles per second. In the United States, the standard output frequencyis 60 Hz, while in Europe it is predominantly 50 Hz. As shown in theExamples herein, the frequency can also influence size and/or shape ofnanocrystals formed according to the electrochemical techniquesdisclosed herein. Preferable frequencies are 5-1000 Hz, more typically,20-500 Hz, even more typically, 40-200 Hz, and even more typically,50-100 Hz. For example, and without wishing to be bound by anyparticular theory or explanation, nucleated or growing crystals canfirst have attractive forces exerted on them (or on crystal growthconstituents, such as ions or atoms, taking part in forming thecrystal(s)) due to, for example, unlike charges attracting and thenrepulsive forces being exerted on such constituents (e.g., due to likecharges repelling). These factors also clearly play a large role innucleation and/or crystal growth of the novel nanocrystals formed byaffecting particle size and/or shapes; as well as permitting thecrystals to be formed without the need for reductants or surfactants(i.e., that needed to be added to take part in the prior art reductionchemistry techniques) causing the nanocrystal surfaces to be free ofsuch added chemical species. The lack of organic-based coatings on thesurface of grown nanocrystals alters (and in some cases controls) theirbiological function.

Moreover, the particular waveform that is used for a specific frequencyalso affects nanocrystal growth conditions, and thus effects nanocrystalsize(s) and/or shape(s). While the U.S. uses a standard AC frequency of60 Hz, it also uses a standard waveform of a “sine” wave. As shown inthe Examples herein, changing the waveform from a sine wave to a squarewave or a triangular wave also affects nanocrystal crystallizationconditions and thus affects resultant nanocrystal size(s) and shape(s).Preferred waveforms include sine waves, square waves and triangularwaves; however hybrid waveforms should be considered to be within themetes and bounds of the invention.

Still further, the voltage applied in the novel electrochemicaltechniques disclosed herein can also affect nanocrystalline size(s) andshape(s). A preferred voltage range is 20-2000 Volts, a more preferredvoltage range is 50-1000 Volts and an even more preferred voltage rangeis 100-300 Volts. In addition to voltage, the amperages used with thesevoltages typically are 0.1-10 Amps, a more preferred amperage range is0.1-5 Amps and an even more preferred amperage range is 0.4-1 Amps.

Still further, the “duty cycle” used for each waveform applied in thenovel electrochemical techniques disclosed herein can also affectnanocrystalline size(s) and shape(s). In this regard, without wishing tobe bound by any particular theory or explanation, the amount of timethat an electrode is positively biased can result in a first set ofreactions, while a different set of reactions can occur when theelectrode is negatively biased. By adjusting the amount of time that theelectrodes are positively or negatively biased, size(s) and/or shape(s)of grown nanocrystals can be controlled. Further, the rate at which anelectrode converts to + or − is also a function of waveform shape andalso influences nanocrystal size(s) and/or shape(s).

Temperature can also play an important role. In some of the preferredembodiments disclosed herein, the boiling point temperature of the wateris approached in at least a portion of the processing vessel where goldnanocrystals are nucleated and grown. For example, output watertemperature in the continuous processing Examples herein ranges fromabout 60° C.-99° C. However, as discussed elsewhere herein, differenttemperature ranges are also desirable. Temperature can influenceresultant product (e.g., size and/or shape of nanocrystals) as well asthe amount of resultant product (i.e., ppm level of nanocrystals in thesuspension or colloid). For example, while it is possible to cool theliquid 3 in the trough member 30 by a variety of known techniques (asdisclosed in some of the Examples herein), many of the Examples hereindo not cool the liquid 3, resulting in evaporation of a portion of theliquid 3 during processing thereof.

FIG. 11a shows a perspective view of one embodiment of substantially allof one trough member 30 shown in FIG. 10b including an inlet portion orinlet end 31 and an outlet portion or outlet end 32. The flow direction“F” discussed in other figures herein corresponds to a liquid enteringat or near the end 31 (e.g., utilizing an appropriate means fordelivering fluid into the trough member 30 at or near the inlet portion31) and exiting the trough member 30 through the end 32. FIG. 11b showsthe trough member 30 of FIG. 11a containing three control devices 20 a,20 b and 20 c removably attached to the trough member 30. Theinteraction and operations of the control devices 20 a, 20 b and 20 ccontaining the electrodes 1 and/or 5 are discussed in greater detaillater herein. However, in a preferred embodiment of the invention, thecontrol devices 20, can be removably attached to a top portion of thetrough member 30 so that the control devices 20 are capable of beingpositioned at different positions along the trough member 30, therebyaffecting certain processing parameters, constituents produced (e.g.,sizes and shapes of nanocrystals), reactivity of constituents produced,as well as nanocrystal(s)/fluid(s) produced therefrom.

FIG. 11c shows a perspective view of an atmosphere control device cover35′. The atmosphere control device or cover 35′ has attached thereto aplurality of control devices 20 a, 20 b and 20 c controllably attachedto electrode(s) 1 and/or 5. The cover 35′ is intended to provide theability to control the atmosphere within and/or along a substantialportion of (e.g., greater than 50% of) the longitudinal direction of thetrough member 30, such that any adjustable plasma(s) 4 created betweenany electrode(s) 1 and surface 2 of the liquid 3 can be a function ofthe previously discussed parameters of voltage, current, currentdensity, polarity, etc. (as discussed in more detail elsewhere herein)as well as a controlled atmosphere (also discussed in more detailelsewhere herein).

FIG. 11d shows the apparatus of FIG. 11c including an additional supportmeans 34 for supporting the trough member 30 (e.g., on an exteriorportion thereof), as well as supporting (at least partially) the controldevices 20 (not shown in FIG. 11d ). It should be understood by thereader that various details can be changed regarding, for example, thecross-sectional shapes shown for the trough member 30, atmospherecontrol(s) (e.g., the cover 35′) and external support means (e.g., thesupport means 34) which are within the metes and bounds of thisdisclosure, some of which are discussed in greater detail later herein.

FIG. 11e shows an alternative configuration for the trough member 30.Specifically, the trough member 30 is shown in perspective view and is“Y-shaped”. Specifically, the trough member 30 comprises top portions 30a and 30 b and a bottom portion 30o. Likewise, inlets 31 a and 31 b areprovided along with an outlet 32. A portion 30 d corresponds to thepoint where 30 a and 30 b meet 30 o.

FIG. 11f shows the same “Y-shaped” trough member shown in FIG. 11e ,except that the portion 30 d of FIG. 11e is now shown as a more definitemixing section 30 d′. In this regard, certain constituents manufacturedor produced in the liquid 3 in one or all of, for example, the portions30 a, 30 b and/or 30 c, may be desirable to be mixed together at thepoint 30 d (or 30 d′). Such mixing may occur naturally at theintersection 30 d shown in FIG. 11e (i.e., no specific or specialsection 30 d′ may be needed), or may be more specifically controlled atthe portion 30 d′. It should be understood that the portion 30 d′ couldbe shaped into any effective shape, such as square, circular,rectangular, etc., and be of the same or different depth relative toother portions of the trough member 30. In this regard, the area 30 dcould be a mixing zone or subsequent reaction zone or a zone where aprocessing enhancer may be added. More details of the interactions 30 dand 30d′ are discussed later herein.

FIGS. 11g and 11h show a “T-shaped” trough member 30. Specifically, anew portion 30 c has been added. Other features of FIGS. 11g and 11h aresimilar to those features shown in 11 e and 11 f.

It should be understood that a variety of different shapes and/orcross-sections can exist for the trough member 30, any one of which canproduce desirable results as a function of a variety of design andproduction considerations. For example, one or more constituentsproduced in the portion(s) 30 a, 30 b and/or 30 c could be transient(e.g., a seed crystal or nucleation point) and/or semi-permanent (e.g.,grown nanocrystals present in a colloid). If such constituent(s)produced, for example, in portion 30 a is to be desirably andcontrollably reacted with one or more constituents produced in, forexample, portion 30 b, then a final product (e.g., properties of a finalproduct) which results from such mixing could be a function of whenconstituents formed in the portions 30 a and 30b are mixed together.Also, the temperature of liquids entering the section 30 d (or 30 d′)can be monitored/controlled to maximize certain desirable processingconditions and/or desirable properties of final products and/or minimizecertain undesirable products. Still further, processing enhancers may beselectively utilized in one or more of the portions 30 a, 30 b, 30 c, 30d (30 d′) and/or 30 o (or at any selected point or portion in the troughmember 30).

FIG. 12a shows a perspective view of a local atmosphere controlapparatus 35 which functions as a means for controlling a localatmosphere around the electrode sets 1 and/or 5 so that variouslocalized gases can be utilized to, for example, control and/or effectcertain components in the adjustable plasma 4 between electrode 1 andsurface 2 of the liquid 3, as well as influence adjustableelectrochemical reactions at and/or around the electrode(s) 5. Thethrough-holes 36 and 37 shown in the atmosphere control apparatus 35 areprovided to permit external communication in and through a portion ofthe apparatus 35. In particular, the hole or inlet 37 is provided as aninlet connection for any gaseous species to be introduced to the insideof the apparatus 35. The hole 36 is provided as a communication port forthe electrodes 1 and/or 5 extending therethrough which electrodes areconnected to, for example, the control device 20 located above theapparatus 35. Gasses introduced through the inlet 37 can simply beprovided at a positive pressure relative to the local externalatmosphere and may be allowed to escape by any suitable means or pathwayincluding, but not limited to, bubbling out around the portions 39 aand/or 39 b of the apparatus 35, when such portions are caused, forexample, to be at least partially submerged beneath the surface 2 of theliquid 3. Alternatively, a second hole or outlet (not shown) can beprovided elsewhere in the atmosphere control apparatus 35. Generally,the portions 39 a and 39 b can break the surface 2 of the liquid 3effectively causing the surface 2 to act as part of the seal to form alocalized atmosphere around electrode sets 1 and/or 5. When a positivepressure of a desired gas enters through the inlet port 37, smallbubbles can be caused to bubble past, for example, the portions 39 aand/or 39 b. Alternatively, gas may exit through an appropriate outletin the atmosphere control apparatus 35, such as through the hole 36.

FIG. 12b shows a perspective view of first atmosphere control apparatus35 a in the foreground of the trough member 30 contained within thesupport housing 34. A second atmosphere control apparatus 35 b isincluded and shows a control device 20 located thereon. “F” denotes thelongitudinal direction of flow of liquid through the trough member 30.IF desired, locally controlled atmosphere(s) (e.g., of substantially thesame chemical constituents, such as air or nitrogen, or substantiallydifferent chemical constituents, such as helium and nitrogen) arounddifferent electrode sets 1 and/or 5 can be achieved.

FIG. 13 shows a perspective view of an alternative atmosphere controlapparatus 38 wherein the entire trough member 30 and support means 34are contained within the atmosphere control apparatus 38. In this case,for example, gas inlet 37 (37′) can be provided along with a gasoutlet(s) 37 a (37 a′). The exact positioning of the gas inlet(s) 37(37′) and gas outlet(s) 37 a (37 a′) on the atmosphere control apparatus38 is a matter of convenience, as well as a matter of the composition ofthe atmosphere contained therein. In this regard, if the gas is heavierthan air or lighter than air, inlet and outlet locations can be adjustedaccordingly. Aspects of these factors are discussed in greater detaillater herein.

FIG. 14 shows a schematic view of the general apparatus utilized inaccordance with the teachings of some of the preferred embodiments ofthe present invention. In particular, this FIG. 14 shows a sideschematic view of the trough member 30 containing a liquid 3 therein. Onthe top of the trough member 30 rests a plurality of control devices 20a-20 d which are, in this embodiment, removably attached thereto. Thecontrol devices 20 a-20 d may of course be permanently fixed in positionwhen practicing various embodiments of the invention. The precise numberof control devices 20 (and corresponding electrode(s) 1 and/or 5 as wellas the configuration(s) of such electrodes) and the positioning orlocation of the control devices 20 (and corresponding electrodes 1and/or 5) are a function of various preferred embodiments of theinvention discussed in greater detail elsewhere herein. However, ingeneral, an input liquid 3 (for example water or purified water) isprovided to a liquid transport means 40 (e.g., a liquid pump, gravity orliquid pumping means for pumping the liquid 3) such as a peristalticpump 40 for pumping the liquid 3 into the trough member 30 at afirst-end 31 thereof. Exactly how the liquid 3 is introduced isdiscussed in greater detail elsewhere herein. The liquid transport means40 may include any means for moving liquids 3 including, but not limitedto a gravity-fed or hydrostatic means, a pumping means, a regulating orvalve means, etc. However, the liquid transport means 40 should becapable of reliably and/or controllably introducing known amounts of theliquid 3 into the trough member 30. The amount of time that the liquid 3is contained within the trough member 30 (e.g., at or around one or moreelectrode(s) 1/5) also influences the products produced (e.g., thesizes(s) and/or shapes(s) of the grown nanocrystals).

Once the liquid 3 is provided into the trough member 30, means forcontinually moving the liquid 3 within the trough member 30 may or maynot be required. However, a simple means for continually moving theliquid 3 includes the trough member 30 being situated on a slight angleθ (e.g., less than a degree to a few degrees for a low viscosity fluid 3such as water) relative to the support surface upon which the troughmember 30 is located. For example, a difference in vertical height ofless than one inch between an inlet portion 31 and an outlet portion 32,spaced apart by about 6 feet (about 1.8 meters) relative to the supportsurface may be all that is required, so long as the viscosity of theliquid 3 is not too high (e.g., any viscosity around the viscosity ofwater can be controlled by gravity flow once such fluids are containedor located within the trough member 30). In this regard, FIGS. 15a and15b show two acceptable angles θ₁ and θ₂, respectively, for troughmember 30 that can process various viscosities, including low viscosityfluids such as water. The need for a greater angle θ could be a resultof processing a liquid 3 having a viscosity higher than water; the needfor the liquid 3 to transit the trough 30 at a faster rate, etc.Further, when viscosities of the liquid 3 increase such that gravityalone is insufficient, other phenomena such as specific uses ofhydrostatic head pressure or hydrostatic pressure can also be utilizedto achieve desirable fluid flow. Further, additional means for movingthe liquid 3 along the trough member 30 could also be provided insidethe trough member 30. Such means for moving the fluid include mechanicalmeans such as paddles, fans, propellers, augers, etc., acoustic meanssuch as transducers, thermal means such as heaters and/or chillers(which may have additional processing benefits), etc., are alsodesirable for use with the present invention.

FIG. 14 also shows a storage tank or storage vessel 41 at the end 32 ofthe trough member 30. Such storage vessel 41 can be any acceptablevessel and/or pumping means made of one or more materials which, forexample, do not negatively interact with the liquid 3 (or constituentscontained therein) produced within the trough member 30. Acceptablematerials include, but are not limited to, plastics such as high-densitypolyethylene (HDPE), glass, metal(s) (such a certain grades of stainlesssteel), etc. Moreover, while a storage tank 41 is shown in thisembodiment, the tank 41 should be understood as including a means fordistributing or directly bottling or packaging the fluid 3 processed inthe trough member 30.

FIGS. 16a, 16b and 16c show a perspective view of one preferredembodiment of the invention. In these FIGS. 16a, 16b and 16c , eightseparate control devices 20 a-h are shown in more detail. Such controldevices 20 can utilize one or more of the electrode configurations shownin, for example, FIGS. 8a, 8b, 8c and 8d . The precise positioning andoperation of the control devices 20 (and the corresponding electrodes 1and/or 5) are discussed in greater detail elsewhere herein. FIG. 16bincludes use of two air distributing or air handling devices (e.g., fans342 a and 342 b). These air handling devices can assist in removing, forexample, humid air produced around the electrodes 1/5. Specifically, insome cases certain amounts of humidity are desirable, but in othercases, excessive localized humidity could be undesirable. Similarly,FIG. 16c includes the use of two alternative air distributing or airhandling devices 342 c and 342 d.

The electrode control devices shown generally in, for example, FIGS. 2,3, 14 and 16 are shown in greater detail in FIGS. 17d, 17e, 17f, 17m and17n . In particular, these FIGS. 17d, 17e, 17f, 17m and 17n show aperspective view of various embodiments of the inventive control devices20.

First, specific reference is made to FIGS. 17d, 17e and 17f In each ofthese three Figures, a base portion 25 is provided, said base portionhaving a top portion 25′ and a bottom portion 25″. The base portion 25is made of a suitable rigid plastic material including, but not limitedto, materials made from structural plastics, resins, polyurethane,polypropylene, nylon, Teflon, polyvinyl, etc. A dividing wall 27 isprovided between two electrode adjustment assemblies. The dividing wall27 can be made of similar or different material from that materialcomprising the base portion 25. Two servo-step motors 21 a and 21 b arefixed to the surface 25′ of the base portion 25. The step motors 21 a,21 b could be any step motor capable of slightly moving (e.g., on a360-degree basis, slightly less than or slightly more than 1 degree)such that a circumferential movement of the step motors 21 a/21 bresults in a vertical raising or lowering of an electrode 1 or 5communicating therewith. In this regard, a first wheel-shaped component23 a is the drive wheel connected to the output shaft 231 a of the drivemotor 21 a such that when the drive shaft 231 a rotates, circumferentialmovement of the wheel 23 a is created. Further, a slave wheel 24 a iscaused to press against and toward the drive wheel 23 a such thatfrictional contact exists therebetween. The drive wheel 23 a and/orslave wheel 24 a may include a notch or groove on an outer portionthereof to assist in accommodating the electrodes 1,5. The slave wheel24 a is caused to be pressed toward the drive wheel 23 a by a spring 285located between the portions 241 a and 261 a attached to the slave wheel24a. In particular, a coiled spring 285 can be located around theportion of the axis 262 a that extends out from the block 261 a. Springsshould be of sufficient tension so as to result in a reasonablefrictional force between the drive wheel 24 a and the slave wheel 24 asuch that when the shaft 231 a rotates a determined amount, theelectrode assemblies 5 a, 5 b, 1 a, 1 b, etc., will move in a verticaldirection relative to the base portion 25. Such rotational orcircumferential movement of the drive wheel 23 a results in a directtransfer of vertical directional changes in the electrodes 1,5 shownherein. At least a portion of the drive wheel 23 a should be made froman electrically insulating material; whereas the slave wheel 24 a can bemade from an electrically conductive material or an electricallyinsulating material, but typically, an electrically insulating material.

The drive motors 21 a/21 b can be any suitable drive motor which iscapable of small rotations (e.g., slightly below 1°/360° or slightlyabove 1°/360°) such that small rotational changes in the drive shaft 231a are translated into small vertical changes in the electrodeassemblies. A preferred drive motor includes a drive motor manufacturedby RMS Technologies model 1MC170-S4 step motor, which is a DC-poweredstep motor. This step motors 21 a/21 b include an RS-232 connection 22a/22 b, respectively, which permits the step motors to be driven by aremote-control apparatus such as a computer or a controller.

The portions 271, 272 and 273 are primarily height adjustments whichadjust the height of the base portion 25 relative to the trough member30. The portions 271, 272 and 273 can be made of same, similar ordifferent materials from the base portion 25. The portions 274 a/274 band 275 a/275 b can also be made of the same, similar or differentmaterial from the base portion 25. However, these portions should beelectrically insulating in that they house various wire componentsassociated with delivering voltage and current to the electrodeassemblies 1 a/1 b, 5 a/5 b, etc.

The electrode assembly specifically shown in FIG. 17d compriseselectrodes 5 a and 5b (corresponding to, for example, the electrodeassembly shown in FIG. 3c ). However, that electrode assembly couldcomprise electrode(s) 1 only, electrode(s) 1 and 5, electrode(s) 5 and1, or electrode(s) 5 only. In this regard, FIG. 17e shows an assemblywhere two electrodes 1 a/5 a are provided instead of the twoelectrode(s) 5 a/5 b shown in FIG. 17d . All other elements shown inFIG. 17e are similar to those shown in FIG. 17 d.

With regard to the size of the control device 20 shown in FIGS. 17d, 17eand 17f , the dimensions “L” and “W” can be any dimension whichaccommodates the size of the step motors 21 a/21 b, and the width of thetrough member 30. In this regard, the dimension “L” shown in FIG. 17fneeds to be sufficient such that the dimension “L” is at least as longas the trough member 30 is wide, and typically slightly longer (e.g.,10-30%). The dimension “W” shown in FIG. 17f needs to be wide enough tohouse the step motors 21 a/21 b and not be so wide as to unnecessarilyunderutilize longitudinal space along the length of the trough member30. In one preferred embodiment of the invention, the dimension “L” isabout 7 inches (about 19 millimeters) and the dimension “W” is about 4inches (about 10.5 millimeters). The thickness “H” of the base member 25is any thickness sufficient which provides structural, electrical andmechanical rigidity for the base member 25 and should be of the order ofabout ¼″-¾″ (about 6 mm-19 mm). While these dimensions are not critical,the dimensions give an understanding of size generally of certaincomponents of one preferred embodiment of the invention.

Further, in each of the embodiments of the invention shown in FIGS. 17d,17e and 17f , the base member 25 (and the components mounted thereto),can be covered by a suitable cover 290 (shown in FIG. 17f ) to insulateelectrically, as well as creating a local protective environment for allof the components attached to the base member 25. Such cover 290 can bemade of any suitable material which provides appropriate safety andoperational flexibility. Exemplary materials include plastics similar tothat used for other portions of the trough member 30 and/or the controldevice 20 and is typically transparent. This cover member 290 can alsobe made of the same type of materials used to make the base portion 25.The cover 290 is also shown as having 2 through-holes 291 and 292therein. Specifically, these through-holes can, for example, be alignedwith excess portions of, for example, electrodes 5, which can beconnected to, for example, a spool of electrode wire (not shown in thesedrawings).

FIGS. 17m and 17n show an alternative configuration for the controldevice 20. In these devices, similarly numbered components areessentially the same as those components shown in FIGS. 17d, 17e and 17f. The primary differences between the control devices 20 shown in FIGS.17m and 17n is that while a similar master or drive-pulley 23a isprovided, rather than providing a slave wheel 24 a or 241 as shown inthe embodiments of FIGS. 17d, 17e and 17f , a resilient electricalcontact device 242 is provided as shown in FIG. 17m and as 242 a/242 bin FIG. 17n . In this regard, the portions 242, 242 a and 242 b provideresilient tension for the wire 5 a or 5 b to be provided therebetween.Additionally, this control device design causes there to be anelectrical connection between the power sources 50/60 and the electrodes1/5. The servo-motor 21 a functions as discussed above, but a singleelectrode (FIG. 17m ) or two electrodes (FIG. 17n ) are driven by asingle servo drive motor 21 a. Accordingly, a single drive motor 21 acan replace two drive motors in the case of the embodiment shown in FIG.17n . Further, by providing the electrical contact between the wires 1/5and the power sources 50/60, all electrical connections are provided ona top surface of (i.e., the surface further away from the liquid 3,resulting in certain design and production advantages.

FIGS. 17d and 17e show a refractory material component 29. The component29 is made of, for example, suitable refractory component, including,for example, aluminum oxide or the like. The refractory component 29 mayhave a transverse through-hole therein which provides for electricalconnections to the electrode(s) 1 and/or 5. Further a longitudinalthrough-hole is present along the length of the refractory component 29such that electrode assemblies 1/5 can extend therethrough.

FIG. 17e shows a perspective view of the bottom portion of the controldevice 20. In this FIG. 17e , one electrode(s) la is shown as extendingthrough a first refractory portion 29 a and one electrode(s) 5 a isshown as extending through a second refractory portion 29 b.Accordingly, each of the electrode assemblies expressly disclosedherein, as well as those referred to herein, can be utilized incombination with the preferred embodiments of the control device shownherein.

In order for the control devices 20 to be actuated, two generalprocesses need to occur. A first process involves electricallyactivating the electrode(s) 1 and/or 5 (e.g., applying power theretofrom a preferred power source 10), and the second general processoccurrence involves determining, for example, how much power is appliedto the electrode(s) and appropriately adjusting electrode 1/5 height inresponse to such determinations (e.g., manually and/or automaticallyadjusting the height of the electrodes 1/5); or adjusting the electrodeheight or simply moving the electrode into (e.g., progressivelyadvancing the electrode(s) 5 through the liquid 3) or out of contactwith the liquid 3, as a function of time. In the case of utilizing acontrol device 20, suitable instructions are communicated to the stepmotor 21 through the RS-232 ports 22 a and 22 b. Important embodimentsof components of the control device 20, as well as the electrodeactivation process, are discussed herein.

A preferred embodiment of the invention utilizes the automatic controldevices 20 shown in various figures herein. The step motors 21 a and 21b shown in, for example, FIGS. 17d -17 f, and 17 m-17 n are controlledeither by the electrical circuit diagrammed in each of FIGS. 17g-17j(e.g., for electrode sets 1/5 that make a plasma 4 or for electrode sets5/5); or are controlled by the electrical circuit diagrammed in each ofFIGS. 17k and 17l for electrode sets 5/5, in some embodiments herein.

In particular, in this embodiment, the electrical circuit of FIG. 17j isa voltage monitoring circuit. Specifically, voltage output from each ofthe output legs of the secondary coil 603 in the transformer 60 aremonitored over the points “P-Q” and the points “P′-Q′”. Specifically,the resistor denoted by “RL” corresponds to the internal resistance ofthe multi-meter measuring device (not shown). The output voltagesmeasured between the points “P-Q” and “P′-Q” typically, for severalpreferred embodiments shown in the Examples later herein, range betweenabout 200 volts and about 4,500 volts. However, higher and lowervoltages can work with many of the embodiments disclosed herein. InExamples 1-4 later herein, desirable target voltages have beendetermined for each electrode set 1 and/or 5 at each position along atrough member 30. Such desirable target voltages are achieved as actualapplied voltages by, utilizing, for example, the circuit control shownin FIGS. 17g, 17h and 17i . These FIGS. 17g and 17h refer to sets ofrelays controlled by a Velleman K8056 circuit assembly (having amicro-chip PIC16F630-I/P). In particular, a voltage is detected acrosseither the “P-Q” or the “P′-Q′” locations and such voltage is comparedto a predetermined reference voltage (actually compared to a targetvoltage range). If a measured voltage across, for example, the points“P-Q” is approaching a high-end of a pre-determined voltage targetrange, then, for example, the Velleman K8056 circuit assembly causes aservo-motor 21 (with specific reference to FIG. 17f ) to rotate in aclockwise direction so as to lower the electrode 5 a toward and/or intothe fluid 3. In contrast, should a measured voltage across either of thepoints “P-Q” or “P′-Q′” be approaching a lower end of a target voltage,then, for example, again with reference to FIG. 17f , the server motor21 a will cause the drive-wheel 23 a to rotate in a counter-clockwiseposition thereby raising the electrode 5 a relative to the fluid 3.

Each set of electrodes in Examples 1-4 of the invention has anestablished target voltage range. The size or magnitude of acceptablerange varies by an amount between about 1% and about 10%-15% of thetarget voltage. Some embodiments of the invention are more sensitive tovoltage changes and these embodiments should have, typically, smalleracceptable voltage ranges; whereas other embodiments of the inventionare less sensitive to voltage and should have, typically, largeracceptable ranges. Accordingly, by utilizing the circuit diagram shownin FIG. 17j , actual voltages output from the secondary coil 603 of thetransformer 60 are measured at “RL” (across the terminals “P-Q” and“P′-Q′”), and are then compared to the predetermined voltage ranges. Theservo-motor 21 responds by rotating a predetermined amount in either aclockwise direction or a counter-clockwise direction, as needed.Moreover, with specific reference to FIGS. 17g -17 j, it should be notedthat an interrogation procedure occurs sequentially by determining thevoltage of each electrode, adjusting height (if needed) and thenproceeding to the next electrode. In other words, each transformer 60 isconnected electrically in a manner shown in FIG. 17j . Each transformer60 and associated measuring points “P-Q” and “P′-Q′” are connected to anindividual relay. For example, the points “P-Q” correspond to relaynumber 501 in FIG. 17g and the points “P′-Q′” correspond to the relay502 in FIG. 17g . Accordingly, two relays are required for eachtransformer 60. Each relay, 501, 502, etc., sequentially interrogates afirst output voltage from a first leg of a secondary coil 603 and then asecond output voltage from a second leg of the secondary coil 603; andsuch interrogation continues onto a first output voltage from a secondtransformer 60 b on a first leg of its secondary coil 603, and then onto a second leg of the secondary coil 603, and so on.

The computer or logic control for the disclosed interrogation voltageadjustment techniques are achieved by any conventional program orcontroller, including, for example, in a preferred embodiment, standardvisual basic programming steps utilized in a PC. Such programming stepsinclude interrogating, reading, comparing, and sending an appropriateactuation symbol to increase or decrease voltage (e.g., raise or loweran electrode relative to the surface 2 of the liquid 3). Such techniquesshould be understood by an artisan of ordinary skill.

Further, in another preferred embodiment of the invention utilized inExample 16 for the electrode sets 5/5′, the automatic control devices 20are controlled by the electrical circuits of FIGS. 17h, 17i, 17k and 17l. In particular, the electrical circuit of FIG. 17l is a voltagemonitoring circuit used to measure current. In this case, voltage andcurrent are the same numerical value due to choice of a resistor(discussed later herein). Specifically, voltage output from each of thetransformers 50 are monitored over the points “P-Q” and the points“P′-Q′”. Specifically, the resistor denoted by “RL” corresponds to theinternal resistance of the multi-meter measuring device (not shown). Theoutput voltages measured between the points “P-Q” and “P′-Q′” typically,for several preferred embodiments shown in the Examples later herein,range between about 0.05 volts and about 5 volts. However, higher andlower voltages can work with many of the embodiments disclosed herein.Desirable target voltages have been determined for each electrode set5/5′ at each position along a trough member 30 b′. Such desirable targetvoltages are achieved as actual applied voltages by, utilizing, forexample, the circuit control shown in FIGS. 17h, 17i, 17k and 17 l.These FIG. 17 refer to sets of relays controlled by a Velleman K8056circuit assembly (having a micro-chip PIC16F630-I/P).

In particular, in the Example 16 embodiments the servo-motor 21 iscaused to rotate at a specific predetermined time in order to maintain adesirable electrode 5 profile. The servo-motor 21 responds by rotating apredetermined amount in a clockwise direction. Specifically theservo-motor 21 rotates a sufficient amount such that about 0.009 inches(0.229 mm) of the electrode 5 is advanced toward and into the femalereceiver portion o5 (shown, for example in some of FIGS. 20 and 21).Thus, the electrode 5 is progressively advanced through the liquid 3. Inone preferred embodiment discussed herein, such electrode 5 movementoccurs about every 5.8 minutes. Accordingly, the rate of verticalmovement of each electrode 5 into the female receiver portion o5 isabout ¾ inches (about 1.9 cm) every 8 hours. Accordingly, asubstantially constant electrode 5 shape or profile is maintained by itsconstant or progressive advance into and through the liquid 3. Further,once the advancing end of the electrode 5 reaches the longitudinal endof the female receiver portion o5, the electrode 5 can be removed fromthe processing apparatus. Alternatively, an electrode collecting meansfor collecting the “used” portion of the electrode can be provided. Suchmeans for collecting the electrode(s) 5 include, but are not limited to,a winding or spooling device, and extended portion o5, a wire clippingor cutting device, etc. However, in order to achieve differentcurrent/voltage profiles (and thus a variety of different nanocrystalsize(s) and/or shapes(s), other rates of electrode movement are alsowithin the metes and bounds of this invention. Moreover, with specificreference to FIGS. 17h, 17i, 17k and 17 l, it should be noted that aninterrogation procedure occurs sequentially by determining the voltageof each electrode, which in the embodiments of Example 16, areequivalent to the amps because in FIG. 17l the resistors Ra and Rb areapproximately lohm, accordingly, V=I. In other words, each transformer50 is connected electrically in a manner shown in 17 h, 17 i, 17 k and17 l. Each transformer 50 and associated measuring points “P-Q” and“P′-Q′” are connected to two individual relays. For example, the points“P-Q” correspond to relay number 501 and 501′ in FIG. 17k and the points“P′-Q′” correspond to the relay 502, 502′ in FIG. 17k . Accordingly,relays are required for each electrode set 5/5. Each relay, 501/501′ and502/502′, etc., sequentially interrogates the output voltage from thetransformer 50 and then a second voltage from the same transformer 50,and so on. The computer or logic control for the disclosed electrodeheight adjustment techniques are achieved by any conventional program orcontroller, including, for example, in a preferred embodiment, standardvisual basic programming steps utilized in a PC. Such programming stepsinclude reading and sending an appropriate actuation symbol to lower anelectrode relative to the surface 2 of the liquid 3. Such techniquesshould be understood by an artisan of ordinary skill.

Definitions

For purposes of the present invention, the terms and expressions below,appearing in the Specification and Claims, are intended to have thefollowing meanings:

“Carbomer”, as used herein in Example 23, means a class of syntheticallyderived cross-linked polyacrylic acid polymers that provide efficientrheology modification with enhanced self-wetting for ease of use. Ingeneral, a carbomer/solvent mixture is neutralized with a base such astriethanolamine or sodium hydroxide to fully open the polymer to achievethe desired thickening, suspending, and emulsion stabilizationproperties to make creams or gels.

“Substantially clean”, as used herein should be understood when used todescribe nanocrystal surfaces means that the nanocrystals do not havechemical constituents adhered or attached to their surfaces in such anamount that would materially alter the functioning of the nanocrystal inat least one of its significant properties of the gold nanocrystals setforth in the Examples herein. Alternatively, the gold nanocrystal doesnot have a layer, surface or film which covers a significant portion(e.g., at least 25% of the crystal, or in another embodiment at least50% of the crystal). It also can mean that the nanocrystal surfaces arecompletely free of any organic contaminants which materially changetheir functionality over bare gold crystal surfaces. It should beunderstood that incidental components that are caused to adhere tonanocrystals of the invention and do not adversely or materially affectthe functioning of the inventive nanocrystals, should still beconsidered to be within the metes and bounds of the invention. The termshould also be understood to be a relative term referencing the lack oftraditional organic-based molecules (i.e., those used in traditionalreduction chemistry techniques) on the surfaces of the grownnanocrystals of the invention.

A “diagnostic effective amount”, as used herein, means an amountsufficient to bind to MIF to enable detection of the MIF-compoundcomplex such that diagnosis of a disease or condition is possible.

An “effective amount”, as used herein, means a certain amount ofsolution or compound which, when administered according to, for example,a desired dosing regimen, provides the desired MIF cytokine inhibitingor treatment or therapeutic activity, or disease/condition prevention orMIF signaling pathway(s). Dosing may occur at intervals of minutes,hours, days, weeks, months or years or continuously over any one ofthese periods.

As used herein, “immune privilege” refers to an area or site within aliving system (e.g., a body) which tolerates the presence of an antigenthat would normally elicit a response from the immune system (e.g., aninflammatory immune response). .

The term “operably coating” a stent means coating a stent in a way thatpermits the timely release of the inventive metallic-based nanocrystals(e.g., comprising aqueous gold-based metal and/or mixtures of gold andother metal(s) and/or alloys of gold with other metal(s)) into thesurrounding tissue to be treated once the coated stent is administered.

As used herein, the term “processing-enhancer” or “processing-enhanced”or “process enhancer” means at least one material (e.g., solid, liquidand/or gas) and typically means an inorganic material, which materialdoes not significantly bind to the formed nanocrystals, but ratherfacilitates nucleation/growth during an electrochemical-stimulatedgrowth process. The material serves important roles in the processincluding providing charged ions in the electrochemical solution topermit the crystals to be grown. The process enhancer is critically acompound(s) which remains in solution, and/or does not form a coating(in one embodiment an organic coating), and/or does not adversely affectthe formed nanocrystals or the formed suspension(s), and/or isdestroyed, evaporated, or is otherwise lost during the electrochemicalcrystal growth process.

The term “Steroid-sparing”, as used herein, means providing a materialother than a steroid in a combination therapy which reduces the amountof steroid required to be effective for treating/preventing anindication..

The phrase “trough member” as used herein should be understood asmeaning a large variety of fluid handling devices including, pipes, halfpipes, channels or grooves existing in materials or objects, conduits,ducts, tubes, chutes, hoses and/or spouts, so long as such arecompatible with the electrochemical processes disclosed herein.

The following Examples serve to illustrate certain embodiments of theinvention but should not to be construed as limiting the scope of thedisclosure as defined in the appended claims.

EXAMPLES 1-4 Manufacturing Gold-Based Nanoparticles/NanoparticleSolutions GT032, GT031, GT019 and GT033

In general, each of Examples 1-4 utilizes certain embodiments of theinvention associated with the apparatuses generally shown in FIGS. 16b,16c and 16g . Specific differences in processing and apparatus will beapparent in each Example. The trough member 30 was made from plexiglass,all of which had a thickness of about 3 mm-4 mm (about ⅛″). The supportstructure 34 was also made from plexiglass which was about ¼″ thick(about 6-7 mm thick). The cross-sectional shape of the trough member 30corresponds to that shape shown in FIG. 10b (i.e., a truncated “V”). Thebase portion “R” of the truncated “V” measured about 0.5″ (about 1 cm),and each side portion “S”, “S′” measured about 1.5″ (about 3.75cm). Thedistance “M” separating the side portions “S”, “S′” of the V-shapedtrough member 30 was about 2¼″-2 5/16″ (about 5.9 cm) (measured frominside to inside). The thickness of each portion also measured about ⅛″(about 3 mm) thick. The longitudinal length “LT” (refer to FIG. 11a ) ofthe V-shaped trough member 30 measured about 6 feet (about 2 meters)long from point 31 to point 32. The difference in vertical height fromthe end 31 of the trough member 30 to the end 32 was about ¼-½″ (about6-12.7 mm) over its 6 feet length (about 2 meters) (i.e., less than 1°).

Purified water (discussed later herein) was used as the input liquid 3in Example 1. In Examples 2-4, a processing enhancer was added to theliquid 3 being input into the trough member 30. The specific processingenhancer added, as well as the specific amounts of the same, wereeffective in these examples. However, other processing enhancer(s) andamounts of same, should be viewed as being within the metes and boundsof this disclosure and these specific examples should not be viewed aslimiting the scope of the invention. The depth “d” (refer to FIG. 10b )of the water 3 in the V-shaped trough member 30 was about 7/16″ to about½″ (about 11 mm to about 13 mm) at various points along the troughmember 30. The depth “d” was partially controlled through use of the dam80 (shown in FIGS. 15a and 15b ). Specifically, the dam 80 was providednear the end 32 and assisted in creating the depth “d” (shown in FIG.10b ) to be about 7/6″-½″ (about 11-13 mm) in depth. The height “j” ofthe dam 80 measured about ¼″ (about 6 mm) and the longitudinal length“k” measured about ½″ (about 13 mm). The width (not shown) wascompletely across the bottom dimension “R” of the trough member 30.Accordingly, the total volume of water 3 in the V-shaped trough member30 during operation thereof was about 26 in^(3 (about) 430 ml).

The rate of flow of the water 3 into the trough member 30 was about 90ml/minute. Due to some evaporation within the trough member 30, the flowout of the trough member 30 was slightly less, about 60-70 ml/minute.Such flow of water 3 into the trough member 30 was obtained by utilizinga Masterflex® L/S pump drive 40 rated at 0.1 horsepower, 10-600 rpm. Themodel number of the Masterflex® pump 40 was 77300-40. The pump drive hada pump head also made by Masterflex® known as Easy-Load Model No.7518-10. In general terms, the head for the pump 40 is known as aperistaltic head. The pump 40 and head were controlled by a Masterflex®LS Digital Modular Drive. The model number for the Digital Modular Driveis 77300-80. The precise settings on the Digital Modular Drive were, forexample, 90 milliliters per minute. Tygon® tubing having a diameter of¼″ (i.e., size 06419-25) was placed into the peristaltic head. Thetubing was made by Saint Gobain for Masterflex®. One end of the tubingwas delivered to a first end 31 of the trough member 30 by a flowdiffusion means located therein. The flow diffusion means tended tominimize disturbance and bubbles in water 3 introduced into the troughmember 30 as well as any pulsing condition generated by the peristalticpump 40. In this regard, a small reservoir served as the diffusion meansand was provided at a point vertically above the end 31 of the troughmember 30 such that when the reservoir overflowed, a relatively steadyflow of water 3 into the end 31 of the V-shaped trough member 30occurred.

With regard to FIGS. 16b and 16c , 8 separate electrode sets (Set 1, Set2, Set 3, Set 8) were attached to 8 separate control devices 20. Each ofTables 1 a-1 d refers to each of the 8 electrode sets by “Set #”.Further, within any Set #, electrodes 1 and 5, similar to the electrodeassemblies shown in FIGS. 3a and 3c were utilized. Each electrode of the8 electrode sets was set to operate within specific target voltagerange. Actual target voltages are listed in each of Tables 1 a-1 d. Thedistance “c-c” (with reference to FIG. 14) from the centerline of eachelectrode set to the adjacent electrode set is also represented.Further, the distance “x” associated with any electrode(s) 1 utilized isalso reported. For any electrode 5's, no distance “x” is reported. Otherrelevant distances are reported, for example, in each of Tables 1 a-1 d.

The power source for each electrode set was an AC transformer 60.Specifically, FIG. 16d shows a source of AC power 62 connected to atransformer 60. In addition, a capacitor 61 is provided so that, forexample, loss factors in the circuit can be adjusted. The output of thetransformer 60 is connected to the electrode(s) 1/5 through the controldevice 20. A preferred transformer for use with the present invention isone that uses alternating current flowing in a primary coil 601 toestablish an alternating magnetic flux in a core 602 that easilyconducts the flux.

When a secondary coil 603 is positioned near the primary coil 601 andcore 602, this flux will link the secondary coil 603 with the primarycoil 601. This linking of the secondary coil 603 induces a voltageacross the secondary terminals. The magnitude of the voltage at thesecondary terminals is related directly to the ratio of the secondarycoil turns to the primary coil turns. More turns on the secondary coil603 than the primary coil 601 results in a step up in voltage, whilefewer turns results in a step down in voltage.

Preferred transformer(s) 60 for use in these Examples have deliberatelypoor output voltage regulation made possible by the use of magneticshunts in the transformer 60. These transformers 60 are known as neonsign transformers. This configuration limits current flow into theelectrode(s) 1/5. With a large change in output load voltage, thetransformer 60 maintains output load current within a relatively narrowrange.

The transformer 60 is rated for its secondary open circuit voltage andsecondary short circuit current. Open circuit voltage (OCV) appears atthe output terminals of the transformer 60 only when no electricalconnection is present. Likewise, short circuit current is only drawnfrom the output terminals if a short is placed across those terminals(in which case the output voltage equals zero). However, when a load isconnected across these same terminals, the output voltage of thetransformer 60 should fall somewhere between zero and the rated OCV. Infact, if the transformer 60 is loaded properly, that voltage will beabout half the rated OCV.

The transformer 60 is known as a Balanced Mid-Point Referenced Design(e.g., also formerly known as balanced midpoint grounded). This is mostcommonly found in mid to higher voltage rated transformers and most 60mA transformers. This is the only type transformer acceptable in a“mid-point return wired” system. The “balanced” transformer 60 has oneprimary coil 601 with two secondary coils 603, one on each side of theprimary coil 601 (as shown generally in the schematic view in FIG. 16g). This transformer 60 can in many ways perform like two transformers.Just as the unbalanced midpoint referenced core and coil, one end ofeach secondary coil 603 is attached to the core 602 and subsequently tothe transformer enclosure and the other end of each secondary coil 603is attached to an output lead or terminal. Thus, with no connectorpresent, an unloaded 15,000-volt transformer of this type, will measureabout 7,500 volts from each secondary terminal to the transformerenclosure but will measure about 15,000 volts between the two outputterminals.

In alternating current (AC) circuits possessing a line power factor or 1(or 100%), the voltage and current each start at zero, rise to a crest,fall to zero, go to a negative crest and back up to zero. This completesone cycle of a typical sine wave. This happens 60 times per second in atypical US application. Thus, such a voltage or current has acharacteristic “frequency” of 60 cycles per second (or 60 Hertz) power.Power factor relates to the position of the voltage waveform relative tothe current waveform. When both waveforms pass through zero together andtheir crests are together, they are in phase and the power factor is 1,or 100%. FIG. 16h shows two waveforms “V” (voltage) and “C” (current)that are in phase with each other and have a power factor of 1 or 100%;whereas FIG. 16i shows two waveforms “V” (voltage) and “C” (current)that are out of phase with each other and have a power factor of about60%; both waveforms do not pass through zero at the same time, etc. Thewaveforms are out of phase and their power factor is less than 100%.

The normal power factor of most such transformers 60 is largely due tothe effect of the magnetic shunts 604 and the secondary coil 603, whicheffectively add an inductor into the output of the transformer's 60circuit to limit current to the electrodes 1/5. The power factor can beincreased to a higher power factor by the use of capacitor(s) 61 placedacross the primary coil 601 of the transformer, 60 which brings theinput voltage and current waves more into phase.

The unloaded voltage of any transformer 60 to be used in the presentinvention is important, as well as the internal structure thereof.Desirable unloaded transformers for use in the present invention includethose that are around 9,000 volts, 10,000 volts, 12,000 volts and 15,000volts. However, these particular unloaded volt transformer measurementsshould not be viewed as limiting the scope acceptable power sources asadditional embodiments. A specific desirable transformer for use inthese Examples is made by Franceformer, Catalog No. 9060-P-E whichoperates at: primarily 120 volts, 60 Hz; and secondary 9,000 volts, 60mA.

FIGS. 16e and 16f show an alternative embodiment of the invention (i.e.,not used in this Example), wherein the output of the transformer 60 thatis input into the electrode assemblies 1/5 has been rectified by a diodeassembly 63 or 63′. The result, in general, is that an AC wave becomessubstantially similar to a DC wave. In other words, an almost flat lineDC output results (actually a slight 120 Hz pulse can sometimes beobtained). This particular assembly results in two additional preferredembodiments of the invention (e.g., regarding electrode orientation). Inthis regard, a substantially positive terminal or output andsubstantially negative terminal or output is generated from the diodeassembly 63. An opposite polarity is achieved by the diode assembly 63′.Such positive and negative outputs can be input into either of theelectrode(s) 1 and/or 5. Accordingly, an electrode 1 can besubstantially negative or substantially positive; and/or an electrode 5can be substantially negative and/or substantially positive.

FIG. 16j shows 8 separate transformer assemblies 60 a-60 h each of whichis connected to a corresponding control device 20 a-20 h, respectively.This set of transformers 60 and control devices 20 are utilized in theseExamples 1-4.

FIG. 16k shows 8 separate transformers 60 a′-60 h′, each of whichcorresponds to the rectified transformer diagram shown in FIG. 16e .This transformer assembly also communicates with a set of controldevices 20 a-20 h and can be used as a preferred embodiment of theinvention, although was not used in these Examples.

FIG. 161 shows 8 separate transformers 60 a″-60 h″, each of whichcorresponds to the rectified transformer diagram shown in FIG. 16f .This transformer assembly also communicates with a set of controldevices 20 a-20 h and can be used as a preferred embodiment of theinvention, although was not used in these Examples.

Accordingly, each transformer assembly 60 a-60 h (and/or 60 a′-60 h′;and/or 60 a″-60 h″) can be the same transformer, or can be a combinationof different transformers (as well as different polarities). The choiceof transformer, power factor, capacitor(s) 61, polarity, electrodedesigns, electrode location, electrode composition, cross-sectionalshape(s) of the trough member 30, local or global electrode composition,atmosphere(s), local or global liquid 3 flow rate(s), liquid 3 localcomponents, volume of liquid 3 locally subjected to various fields inthe trough member 30, neighboring (e.g., both upstream and downstream)electrode sets, local field concentrations, the use and/or positionand/or composition of any membrane used in the trough member, etc., areall factors which influence processing conditions as well as compositionand/or volume of constituents produced in the liquid 3, nanocrystals andnanocrystal /suspensions or colloids made according to the variousembodiments disclosed herein. Accordingly, a plethora of embodiments canbe practiced according to the detailed disclosure presented herein. Thesize and shape of each electrode 1 utilized was about the same. Theshape of each electrode 1 was that of a right triangle with measurementsof about 14 mm×23 mm×27 mm. The thickness of each electrode 1 was aboutlmm. Each triangular-shaped electrode 1 also had a hole therethrough ata base portion thereof, which permitted the point formed by the 23 mmand 27 mm sides to point toward the surface 2 of the water 3. Thematerial comprising each electrode 1 was 99.95% pure (i.e., 3N5) unlessotherwise stated herein. When gold was used for each electrode 1, theweight of each electrode was about 9 grams.

The wires used to attach the triangular-shaped electrode 1 to thetransformer 60 were, for Examples 1-3, 99.95% (3N5) platinum wire,having a diameter of about 1 mm.

The wires used for each electrode 5 comprised 99.95% pure (3N5) goldeach having a diameter of about 0.5 mm. All materials for the electrodes1/5 were obtained from ESPI having an address of 1050 Benson Way,Ashland, Oreg. 97520.

The water 3 used in Example 1 as an input into the trough member 30 (andused in Examples 2-4 in combination with a processing enhancer) wasproduced by a Reverse Osmosis process and deionization process. Inessence, Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a pressure driven membrane separationprocess that separates species that are dissolved and/or suspendedsubstances from the ground water. It is called “reverse” osmosis becausepressure is applied to reverse the natural flow of osmosis (which seeksto balance the concentration of materials on both sides of themembrane). The applied pressure forces the water through the membraneleaving the contaminants on one side of the membrane and the purifiedwater on the other. The reverse osmosis membrane utilized several thinlayers or sheets of film that are bonded together and rolled in a spiralconfiguration around a plastic tube. (This is also known as a thin filmcomposite or TFC membrane.) In addition to the removal of dissolvedspecies, the RO membrane also separates out suspended materialsincluding microorganisms that may be present in the water. After ROprocessing a mixed bed deionization filter was used. The total dissolvedsolvents (“TDS”) after both treatments was about 0.2 ppm, as measured byan Accumet® AR20 pH/conductivity meter.

These examples use gold electrodes for the 8 electrode sets. In thisregard, Tables 1 a-1 d set forth pertinent operating parametersassociated with each of the 16 electrodes in the 8 electrode setsutilized to make gold-based nanocrystals/ nanocrystal suspensions.

TABLE 1a Cold Input Water (Au) Run ID: GT032 Flow Rate: 90 ml/min WireDia.: .5 mm Configuration: Straight/Straight PPM: 0.4 Zeta: n/a TargetDistance Distance Average Electrode Voltage “c-c” “x” Voltage Set # #(kV) in/mm in/mm (kV)  7/177.8* 1 1a 1.6113 0.22/5.59 1.65 5a 0.8621 N/A0.84 8/203.2 2 5b 0.4137 N/A 0.39  5b′ 0.7679 N/A 0.76 8/203.2 3 5c0.491 N/A 0.49  5c′ 0.4816 N/A 0.48 8/203.2 4 1d 0.4579 N/A 0.45 5d0.6435 N/A 0.6 9/228.6 5 5e 0.6893 N/A 0.67  5e′ 0.2718 N/A 0.26 8/203.26 5f 0.4327 N/A 0.43  5f′ 0.2993 N/A 0.3 8/203.2 7 5g 0.4691 N/A 0.43 5g′ 0.4644 N/A 0.46 8/203.2 8 5h 0.3494 N/A 0.33  5h′ 0.6302 N/A 0.61 8/203.2** Output Water 65 C. Temperature *Distance from water inlet tocenter of first electrode set **Distance from center of last electrodeset to water outlet

TABLE 1b .0383 mg/mL of NaHCO₃ (Au) Run ID: GT031 Flow Rate: 90 ml/minNaHCO₃: 0.038 mg/ml Wire Dia.: .5 mm Configuration: Straight/StraightPPM: 1.5 Zeta: n/a Target Distance Distance Average Electrode Voltage“c-c” “x” Voltage Set # # (kV) in/mm in/mm (kV)  7/177.8* 1 1a 1.70530.22/5.59 1.69 5a 1.1484 N/A 1.13 8/203.2 2 5b 0.6364 N/A 0.63  5b′0.9287 N/A 0.92 8/203.2 3 5c 0.7018 N/A 0.71  5c′ 0.6275 N/A 0.628/203.2 4 5d 0.6798 N/A 0.68 5d 0.7497 N/A 0.75 9/228.6 5 5e 0.8364 N/A0.85  5e′ 0.4474 N/A 0.45 8/203.2 6 5f 0.5823 N/A 0.59  5f′ 0.4693 N/A0.47 8/203.2 7 5g 0.609 N/A 0.61  5g′ 0.5861 N/A 0.59 8/203.2 8 5h0.4756 N/A 0.48  5h′ 0.7564 N/A 0.76  8/203.2** Output Water 64 C.Temperature *Distance from water inlet to center of first electrode set**Distance from center of last electrode set to water outlet

TABLE 1c .045 mg/ml of NaCl (Au) Run ID: GT019 Flow Rate: 90 ml/minNaCl: .045 mg/ml Wire Dia.: .5 mm Configuration: Straight/Straight PPM:6.1 Zeta: n/a Target Distance Distance Average Electrode Voltage “c-c”“x” Voltage Set # # (kV) in/mm in/mm (kV)  7/177.8* 1 1a 1.41050.22/5.59 1.41 5a 0.8372 N/A 0.87 8/203.2 2 5b 0.3244 N/A 0.36  5b′0.4856 N/A 0.65 8/203.2 3 5c 0.3504 N/A 0.37  5c′ 0.3147 N/A 0.368/203.2 4 5d 0.3526 N/A 0.37 5d 0.4539 N/A 0.5 9/228.6 5 5e 0.5811 N/A0.6  5e′ 0.2471 N/A 0.27 8/203.2 6 5f 0.3624 N/A 0.38  5f′ 0.2905 N/A0.31 8/203.2 7 5g 0.3387 N/A 0.36  5g′ 0.3015 N/A 0.33 8/203.2 8 5h0.2995 N/A 0.33  5h′ 0.5442 N/A 0.57  8/203.2** Output Water 77 C.Temperature *Distance from water inlet to center of first electrode set**Distance from center of last electrode set to water outlet

TABLE 1d .038 mg/mL of NaHCO₃ (Au) Run ID: GT033 Flow Rate: 90 ml/minNaHCO3: 0.038 mg/ml Wire Dia.: .5 mm Configuration: Straight/StraightPPM: 2.0 Zeta: n/a Target Distance Distance Average Electrode Voltage“c-c” “x” Voltage Set # # (kV) in/mm in/mm (kV)  7/177.8* 1 1a 1.60330.22/5.59 1.641826 5a 1.1759 N/A 1.190259 8/203.2 2 5b 0.6978 N/A0.727213  5b′ 0.8918 N/A 0.946323 8/203.2 3 5c 0.6329 N/A 0.795378  5c′0.526 N/A 0.609542 8/203.2 4 5d 0.609 N/A 0.613669 5d 0.6978 N/A0.719777 9/228.6 5 5e 0.9551 N/A 0.920594  5e′ 0.5594 N/A 0.5472338/203.2 6 5f 0.6905 N/A 0.657295  5f′ 0.5516 N/A 0.521984 8/203.2 7 5g0.5741 N/A 0.588502  5g′ 0.5791 N/A 0.541565 8/203.2 8 5h 0.4661 N/A0.46091  5h′ 0.7329 N/A 0.741009  8/203.2** Output Water 83 C.Temperature *Distance from water inlet to center of first electrode set**Distance from center of last electrode set to water outlet

Table 1 a shows that a “1/5” electrode configuration was utilized forElectrode Set #1 and for Electrode Set #4, and all other sets were ofthe 5/5 configuration; whereas Tables 1 b, 1 c and 1 d show thatElectrode Set #1 was the only electrode set utilizing the 1/5configuration, and all other sets were of the 5/5 configuration.

Additionally, the following differences in manufacturing set-up werealso utilized:

EXAMPLE 1

GT032: The input water 3 into the trough member 30 was chilled in arefrigerator unit until it reached a temperature of about 2° C. and wasthen pumped into the trough member 30;

EXAMPLE 2

GT031: A processing enhancer was added to the input water 3 prior to thewater 3 being input into the trough member 30. Specifically, about 0.145grams/gallon (i.e., about 38.3 mg/liter) of sodium hydrogen carbonate(“soda”), having a chemical formula of NaHCO₃, was added to and mixedwith the water 3. The soda was obtained from Alfa Aesar and the soda hada formula weight of 84.01 and a density of about 2.159 g/cm³ (i.e.,stock #14707, lot D15T043).

EXAMPLE 3

GT019: A processing enhancer was added to the input water 3 prior to thewater 3 being input into the trough member 30. Specifically, about 0.17grams/gallon (i.e., about 45 mg/liter) of sodium chloride (“salt”),having a chemical formula of NaCl, was added to and mixed with the water3.

EXAMPLE 4

GT033: A processing enhancer was added to the input water 3 prior to thewater 3 being input into the trough member 30. Specifically, about 0.145grams/gallon (i.e., about 38.3 mg/liter) of sodium hydrogen carbonate(“soda”), having a chemical formula of NaHCO₃, was added to and mixedwith the water 3. The soda was obtained from Alfa Aesar and the soda hada formula weight of 84.01 and a density of about 2.159 g/cm³ (i.e.,stock #14707, lot D15T043). A representative TEM photomicrograph ofdried solution GT033 is shown in FIG. 32a . Also, FIG. 32b shows dynamiclight scattering data (i.e., hydrodynamic radii) of suspension GT033.

The salt used in Example 3 was obtained from Fisher Scientific (lot#080787) and the salt had a formula weight of 58.44 and an actualanalysis as follows:

Assay 100%   Barium (BA) Pass Test Bromide <0.010% Calcium  0.0002%Chlorate & Nitrate <0.0003% Heavy Metals (AS PB) <5.0 ppm IdentificationPass Test Insoluble Water <0.001%  Iodide  0.0020% Iron (FE) <2.0 ppmMagnesium <0.0005% Ph 5% Soln @ 25 Deg C. 5.9   Phosphate (PO4) <5.0 ppmPotassium (K)  <0.003% Sulfate (SO4) <0.0040%

Table 1e summarizes the physical characteristics results for each of thethree suspensions GT032, GT031 and GT019. Full characterization of GT019was not completed, however, it is clear that under the processingconditions discussed herein, both processing enhancers (i.e., soda andsalt) increase the measured ppm of gold in the suspensions GT031 andGT019 relative to GT032.

TABLE 1e Predominant DLS Mass Color Zeta DLS % Distribution of PotentialTrans- Peak Suspen- PPM (Avg) pH mission (Radius in nm) sion GT032 0.4−19.30 3.29 11.7% 3.80 Clear GT031 1.5 −29.00 5.66 17.0% 0.78 PurpleGT019 6.1 ** ** ** ** Pink GT033 2.0 ** **  30% ** Pink **Values notmeasured

EXAMPLES 5-7 Manufacturing Gold-Based Nanocrystals/NanocrystalSuspensions GD-007, GD-016 and GD-015

In general, each of Examples 5-7 utilize certain embodiments of theinvention associated with the apparatuses generally shown in FIGS. 17b,18a, 19a and 21a . Specific differences in processing and apparatus willbe apparent in each Example. The trough members 30 a and 30b were madefrom ⅛″ (about 3 mm) thick plexiglass, and ¼″ (about 6 mm) thickpolycarbonate, respectively. The support structure 34 was also made fromplexiglass which was about ¼″ thick (about 6-7 mm thick). Thecross-sectional shape of the trough member 30 a shown in FIG. 18acorresponds to that shape shown in FIG. 10b (i.e., a truncated “V”). Thebase portion “R” of the truncated “V” measured about 0.5″ (about 1 cm),and each side portion “S”, “S” measured about 1.5″ (about 3.75 cm). Thedistance “M” separating the side portions “S”, “S” of the V-shapedtrough member 30 a was about 2¼″-2 5/16″ (about 5.9 cm) (measured frominside to inside). The thickness of each portion also measured about ⅛″(about 3 mm) thick. The longitudinal length “LT” (refer to FIG. 11a ) ofthe V-shaped trough member 30 a measured about 3 feet (about 1 meter)long from point 31 to point 32.

Purified water (discussed elsewhere herein) was mixed with about 0.396g/L of NaHCO₃ and was used as the liquid 3 input into trough member 30a. While the amount of NaHCO₃ used was effective, this amount should notbe viewed as limiting the metes and bounds of the invention, and otheramounts are within the metes and bounds of this disclosure. The depth“d” (refer to FIG. 10b ) of the water 3 in the V-shaped trough member 30a was about 7/16″ to about ½″ (about 11 mm to about 13 mm) at variouspoints along the trough member 30 a. The depth “d” was partiallycontrolled through use of the dam 80 (shown in FIG. 18a ). Specifically,the dam 80 was provided near the end 32 and assisted in creating thedepth “d” (shown in FIG. 10b ) to be about 7/6″-½″ (about 11-13 mm) indepth. The height “j” of the dam 80 measured about ¼″ (about 6 mm) andthe longitudinal length “k” measured about ½″ (about 13 mm). The width(not shown) was completely across the bottom dimension “R” of the troughmember 30 a. Accordingly, the total volume of water 3 in the V-shapedtrough member 30 a during operation thereof was about 6.4 in^(3 (about)105 ml).

The rate of flow of the water 3 into the trough member 30 a was about150 ml/minute (note: there was minimal evaporation in the trough member30 a). Such flow of water 3 into the trough member 30 a was obtained byutilizing a Masterflex® L/S pump drive 40 rated at 0.1 horsepower,10-600 rpm. The model number of the Masterflex® pump 40 was 77300-40.The pump drive had a pump head also made by Masterflex® known asEasy-Load Model No. 7518-10. In general terms, the head for the pump 40is known as a peristaltic head. The pump 40 and head were controlled bya Masterflex® LS Digital Modular Drive. The model number for the DigitalModular Drive is 77300-80. The precise settings on the Digital ModularDrive were, for example, 150 milliliters per minute. Tygon® tubinghaving a diameter of ¼″ (i.e., size 06419-25) was placed into theperistaltic head. The tubing was made by Saint Gobain for Masterflex®.One end of the tubing was delivered to a first end 31 of the troughmember 30 a by a flow diffusion means located therein. The flowdiffusion means tended to minimize disturbance and bubbles in water 3introduced into the trough member 30 a as well as any pulsing conditiongenerated by the peristaltic pump 40. In this regard, a small reservoirserved as the diffusion means and was provided at a point verticallyabove the end 31 of the trough member 30 a such that when the reservoiroverflowed, a relatively steady flow of water 3 into the end 31 of theV-shaped trough member 30 a occurred.

There were 5 electrode sets used in Examples 5-7 and one set was asingle electrode set 1 a/5 a located in trough member 30 a. The plasma 4in trough member 30 a from electrode la was created with an electrode lasimilar in shape to that shown in FIG. 5e , and weighed about 9.2 grams.This electrode was 99.95% pure gold. The other electrode 5 a comprised aright-triangular shaped platinum plate measuring about 14 mm×23 mm×27 mmand about 1 mm thick and having about 9 mm submerged in the liquid 3′.The AC transformer used to create the plasma 4 was that transformer 60shown in FIG. 16d and discussed elsewhere herein. AC transformers 50(discussed below) were connected to the other electrode sets 5/5. Allother pertinent run conditions are shown in Tables 2a, 2b and 2c.

The output of the processing-enhanced, conditioned water 3′ wascollected into a reservoir 41 and subsequently pumped by another pump40′ into a second trough member 30 b, at substantially the same rate aspump 40 (e.g., minimal evaporation occurred in trough member 30 a). Thesecond trough member 30 b measured about 30 inches long by 1.5 incheswide by 5.75 inches high and contained about 2500 ml of water 3″therein. Each of four electrode sets 5 b, 5 b′-5 e, 5 e′ comprised99.95% pure gold wire measuring about 0.5 mm in diameter and about 5inches (about 12 cm) in length and was substantially straight. About4.25 inches (about 11 cm) of wire was submerged in the water 3″ whichwas about 4.5 inches (about 11 cm) deep.

With regard to FIGS. 19a and 21a , 4 separate electrode sets (Set 2, Set3, Set 4 and Set 5) were attached to 2 separate transformer devices 50and 50 a, as shown in FIG. 19a . Specifically, transformers 50 and 50 awere electrically connected to each electrode set, according to thewiring diagram show in FIG. 19a . Each transformer device 50, 50 a wasconnected to a separate AC input line that was 120° out of phaserelative to each other. The transformers 50 and 50 a were electricallyconnected in a manner so as not to overload a single electrical circuitand cause, for example, an upstream circuit breaker to disengage (e.g.,when utilized under these conditions, a single transformer 50/50 a coulddraw sufficient current to cause upstream electrical problems). Eachtransformer 50/50 a was a variable AC transformer constructed of asingle coil/winding of wire. This winding acts as part of both theprimary and secondary winding. The input voltage is applied across afixed portion of the winding. The output voltage is taken between oneend of the winding and another connection along the winding. By exposingpart of the winding and making the secondary connection using a slidingbrush, a continuously variable ratio can be obtained. The ratio ofoutput to input voltages is equal to the ratio of the number of turns ofthe winding they connect to. Specifically, each transformer was aMastech TDGC2-5kVA, 10A Voltage Regulator, Output 0-250V.

Each of Tables 2a-2c contains processing information relating to each ofthe 4 electrode sets in trough 30 b by “Set #”. Each electrode of the 4electrode sets in trough 30 b was set to operate at a specific targetvoltage. Actual operating voltages of about 255 volts, as listed in eachof Tables 2a-2c, were applied across the electrode sets. The distance“c-c” (with reference to FIG. 14) from the centerline of each electrodeset to the adjacent electrode set is also represented. Further, thedistance “x” associated with the electrode 1 utilized in trough 30 a isalso reported. For the electrode 5's, no distance “x” is reported. Otherrelevant parameters are also reported in each of Tables 2a-2c.

All materials for the electrodes 1/5 were obtained from ESPI having anaddress of 1050 Benson Way, Ashland, Oreg. 97520.

The water 3 used in Examples 5-7 was produced by a Reverse Osmosisprocess and deionization process and was mixed with the NaHCO₃processing-enhancer and together was input into the trough member 30 a.In essence, Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a pressure driven membraneseparation process that separates species that are dissolved and/orsuspended substances from the ground water. It is called “reverse”osmosis because pressure is applied to reverse the natural flow ofosmosis (which seeks to balance the concentration of materials on bothsides of the membrane). The applied pressure forces the water throughthe membrane leaving the contaminants on one side of the membrane andthe purified water on the other. The reverse osmosis membrane utilizedseveral thin layers or sheets of film that are bonded together androlled in a spiral configuration around a plastic tube. (This is alsoknown as a thin film composite or TFC membrane.) In addition to theremoval of dissolved species, the RO membrane also separates outsuspended materials including microorganisms that may be present in thewater. After RO processing a mixed bed deionization filter was used. Thetotal dissolved solvents (“TDS”) after both treatments was about 0.2ppm, as measured by an Accumet® AR20 pH/conductivity meter.

TABLE 2a 0.396 mg/ml of NaHCO₃ (Au) Run ID: GD-007 Flow Rate: 150 ml/minVoltage: 255 V NaHCO₃: 0.396 mg/ml Wire Dia.: .5 mm Configuration:Straight/Straight PPM: 14.8 Zeta: n/a Distance Distance Electrode “c-c”“x” cross Set # # in/mm in/mm Voltage section  4.5/114.3* 1 1a 0.25 750V 5a N/A 750  23/584.2**  2.5/63.5* 2 5b N/A 255  5b′ N/A 8.5/215.9 3 5cN/A 255 Rectangle  5c′ N/A 5.25″ 8.5/215.9 Deep 4 5d N/A 255  5d′ N/A8/203.2 5 5e N/A 255  5e′ N/A  2/50.8** Output 96 C. Water Temperature*Distance from water inlet to center of first electrode set **Distancefrom center of last electrode set to water outlet

TABLE 2b 0.396 mg/ml of NaHCO₃ (Au) Run ID: GD-016 Flow Rate: 150 ml/minVoltage: 255 V NaHCO₃: 0.396 mg/ml Wire Dia.: .5 mm Configuration:Straight/Straight PPM:  12.5 Zeta: −56.12 Distance Distance Electrode“c-c” “x” cross Set # # in/mm in/mm Voltage section  4.5/114.3* 1 1a0.25 750 V 5a N/A 750  23/584.2** 2.5/63.5*  2 5b N/A 255  5b′ N/A8.5/215.9 3 5c N/A 255 Rectangle  5c′ N/A 5.25″ 8.5/215.9 Deep 4 5d N/A255  5d′ N/A 8/203.2 5 5e N/A 255  5e′ N/A 2/50.8** Output 97 C. WaterTemperature *Distance from water inlet to center of first electrode set**Distance from center of last electrode set to water outlet

TABLE 2c 0.396 mg/ml of NaHCO₃ (Au) Run ID: GD-015 Flow Rate: 150 ml/minVoltage: 255 V NaHCO₃: 0.396 mg/ml Wire Dia.: .5 mm Configuration:Straight/Straight PPM:  14.5 Zeta: −69.1 Distance Distance Electrode“c-c” “x” cross Set # # in/mm in/mm Voltage section  4.5/114.3* 1 1a0.25 750 V 5a N/A 750   23/584.2** 2.5/63.5* 2 5b N/A 255  5b′ N/A8.5/215.9 3 5c N/A 255 Rectangle  5c′ N/A 5.25″ 8.5/215.9 Deep 4 5d N/A255  5d′ N/A 8/203.2 5 5e N/A 255  5e′ N/A 2/50.8** Output 96 C. WaterTemperature *Distance from water inlet to center of first electrode set**Distance from center of last electrode set to water outlet

Representative Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) photomicrographs(FIGS. 25a, 26a and 27a ) were taken of each dried suspension madeaccording to each of these Examples 5-7.

Transmission Electron Microscopy

Specifically, TEM samples were prepared by utilizing a Formvar coatedgrid stabilized with carbon having a mesh size of 200. The grids werefirst pretreated by a plasma treatment under vacuum. The grids wereplaced on a microscope slide lined with a rectangular piece of filterpaper and then placed into a Denton Vacuum apparatus with the necessaryplasma generator accessory installed. The vacuum was maintained at 75mTorr and the plasma was initiated and run for about 30 seconds. Uponcompletion, the system was vented, and the grids removed. The grids werestable up to 7-10 days depending upon humidity conditions, but in allinstances were used within 12 hours.

Approximately 1 μL of each inventive nanocrystal suspension was placedonto each grid and was allowed to air dry at room temperature for 20-30minutes, or until the droplet evaporated. Upon complete evaporation, thegrids were placed onto a holder plate until TEM analysis was performed.

A Philips/FEI Tecnai 12 Transmission Electron Microscope was used tointerrogate all prepared samples. The instrument was run at anaccelerating voltage of 100 keV. After alignment of the beam, thesamples were examined at various magnifications up to and including630,000×. Images were collected via the attached Olympus Megaview IIIside-mounted camera that transmitted the images directly to a PCequipped with iTEM and Tecnai User Interface software which provided forboth control over the camera and the TEM instrument, respectively.

Within the iTEM software, it was possible to randomly move around thegrid by adjusting the position of a crosshair on a circular referenceplane. By selecting and moving the cross-hairs, one could navigatearound the grid. Using this function, the samples were analyzed at fourquadrants of the circular reference, allowing for an unbiasedrepresentation of the sample. The images were later analyzed with ImageJ1.42 software. Another similar software program which measured thenumber of pixels across each particle relative to a known number ofpixels in a spacer bar was used to streamline the particle countingprocess. The particles were measured using the scale bar on the image asa method to calibrate the software prior to measuring each individualparticle. Once calibrated, particles were measured based upon thefollowing parameters: Tetrahedral particles were measured from thetriangle's apex to the base. Pentagonal bipyramids were measured fromeither apex to apex of the diamond or apex of the pentagon to the baseof the pentagon depending upon the particle orientation on the grid.Icosahedrons were measured using the longest distance between two facesof a hexagonal particle. Spherical or irregular shaped particles weremeasured along the longest axis. The data collected from each sample setwas exported to Excel, and using a simple histogram function with 50bins with a minimum of 5 nm and maximum of 50 nm, a histogram wasgenerated. Subsequently, the data generated within Excel was exported toPrism (GraphPad™) and fit to one of two models, a normal distribution orlog normal distribution, each having a unique probability densityfunction (PDF). Within Prism, it was possible to analyze the histogramdata by performing a non-linear fit to the data which generates adistribution known as a normal distribution. Moreover, it was possibleto perform a logarithmic transformation on the non-linear data set togenerate a data set that is then fit to a non-linear model and thentransformed via an exponential transformation to generate a log-normalfit of the data. The two models were then visually compared to thehistogram and the model that fit the data to a better degree was chosen.The particle diameter noted above, and reported in the many HistogramFigures and Tables herein, is the mode of the PDF, which is defined asthe maximum value of the log-normal or normal PDF curve. This PDF curveis overlaid on all histogram figures wherein the mode value is displayeddirectly above and is referenced in text as the TEM average diameter.

For example, FIGS. 25b, 26b and 27b are crystal size distributionhistograms measured from TEM photomicrographs corresponding to driedsolutions GD-007, GD-016 and GD-015 corresponding to Examples 5, 6 and7, respectively. Each of the numbers reported on these histogramscorresponds to the discussion above.

FIGS. 25a, 26a and 27a are representative TEM photomicrographscorresponding to dried solutions GD-007, GD-016 and GD-015 correspondingto Examples 5, 6 and 7, respectively.

The results shown in FIGS. 25d and 25e were obtained using a Philips420ST transmission electron microscope equipped with an EnergyDispersive X-ray Spectroscopy detector (EDS). The microscope was locatedin the Electron Microbeam Analytical Facility at Johns HopkinsUniversity and operated under the guidance of a trained operator.Briefly, approximately 1 μL of GD-007 nanocrystalline suspension wasplaced onto a Formvar carbon-coated 200 square mesh nickel grid and wasallowed to air dry at room temperature for about 20-30 minutes, or untilthe droplet evaporated. Upon complete evaporation, the grids were placedinto the TEM sample holder and interrogated at an accelerating voltageof 120 keV. The microscope's EDS system was comprised of the followingcomponents: Oxford light electron detector, Oxford XP3 pulse processor,and a 4 pi multi-channel analyzer connected to a Macintosh computer.Particle composition was determined via energy dispersive x-rayspectroscopy wherein a high energy beam of electrons was directed at thesurface of the nanocrystal resulting in the ejection of an electronwithin the inner shell, thereby creating an available site for an outerelectron to “fall” into, thus emitting a characteristic x-ray. The x-rayis then detected by the detector having a resolution of 173.00 eV.

FIG. 25d shows one of the gold nanocrystals grown according to Example 5(i.e.,GD-007). The nanocrystal was interrogated with the electron beamas discussed herein.

FIG. 25e shows the energy dispersive x-ray pattern of the interrogationbeam point of the nanocrystal from solution GD-007. Because thismeasuring technique is accurate to about a mono-layer of atoms, the lackof a pattern corresponding to a sodium peak shows that no sodium-basedmono-layer was present on the crystal's surface. Likewise, nosignificant carbon-based peak is observable either, indicative of thelack of any carbon-based monolayer. Note is made of the presence of theoxygen peak, which corresponds to the underlying nickel grid.Accordingly, these FIGS. 25d and 25e show: 1) no organics are present onthese molecules and 2) that the nanocrystals contain a relatively cleansurface devoid of adverse molecules or coatings.

Further, dynamic light scattering techniques were also utilized toobtain an indication of crystal sizes (e.g., hydrodynamic radii)produced according to the Examples herein. FIGS. 25c, 26c and 27c showthe graphical result of the separate dynamic light scattering data sets.

Dynamic Light Scattering

Specifically, dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements were performedon Viscotek 802 DLS instrument. In DLS, as the laser light hits smallparticles and/or organized water structures around the small particles(smaller than the wavelength), the light scatters in all directions,resulting in a time-dependent fluctuation in the scattering intensity.Intensity fluctuations are due to the Brownian motion of the scatteringparticles/water structure combination and contain information about thecrystal size distribution.

The instrument was allowed to warm up for at least 30 min prior to theexperiments. The measurements were made using 12 μl quartz cell. Thefollowing procedure was used:

-   -   1. First, lml of DI water was added into the cell using lml        micropipette, then water was poured out of the cell to a waste        beaker and the rest of the water was shaken off the cell        measuring cavity. This step was repeated two more times to        thoroughly rinse the cell.    -   2. 100 μl of the sample was added into the cell using 200 μl        micropipette. After that all liquid was removed out of the cell        with the same pipette using the same pipette tip and expelled        into the waste beaker. 100 μl of the sample was added again        using the same tip.    -   3. The cell with the sample was placed into a        temperature-controlled cell block of the Viscotek instrument        with frosted side of the cell facing left. A new experiment in        Viscotek OmniSIZE software was opened. The measurement was        started lmin after the temperature equilibrated and the laser        power attenuated to the proper value. The results were saved        after all runs were over.    -   4. The cell was taken out of the instrument and the sample was        removed out of the cell using the same pipette and the tip used        if step 2.    -   5. Steps 2 to 4 were repeated two more times for each sample.    -   6. For a new sample, a new pipette tip for 200 μl pipette was        taken to avoid contamination with previous sample and steps 1        through 5 were repeated.

Data collection and processing was performed with OmniSIZE software,version 3,0,0,291. The following parameters were used for all theexperiments: Run Duration—3s; Experiments—100; Solvent—water, 0 mmol;Viscosity—1 cP; Refractive Index—1.333; Spike Tolerance—20%; BaselineDrift—15%; Target Attenuation—300 k Counts; block temperature—+40° C.After data for each experiment were saved, the results were viewed on“Results” page of the software. Particle size distribution (i.e.,hydrodynamic radii) was analyzed in “Intensity distribution” graph. Onthat graph any peaks outside of 0.1 nm-10 μm range were regarded asartifacts. Particularly, clean water (no particles) results no peakswithin 0.1 nm-10μm range and a broad peak below 0.1 nm. This peak istaken as a noise peak (noise flow) of the instrument. Samples with verylow concentration or very small size of suspended nanocrystals ornanoparticles may exhibit measurable noise peak in “Intensitydistribution” graph. If the peaks within 0.1 nm-10 μm range have higherintensity than the noise peak, those peaks considered being real,otherwise the peaks are questionable and may represent artifacts of dataprocessing.

FIG. 25c shows graphical data corresponding to representative Viscotekoutput data sets for Example 5 (i.e., GD-007); FIG. 26c shows graphicaldata corresponding to representative Viscotek output data sets forExample 6 (i.e., GD-016); and FIG. 27c shows graphical datacorresponding to representative Viscotek output data sets for Example 7(i.e., GD-015). The numbers reported at the tops of the peaks in each ofFIGS. 25c, 26c and 27c correspond to the average hydrodynamic radii ofnanocrystals, and light scattered around such nanocrystals, detected ineach solution. It should be noted that multiple (e.g., hundreds) ofdata-points were examined to give the numbers reported in each data set,as represented by the “s-shaped” curves (i.e., each curve represents aseries of collected data points). The reported “% transmission” in eachdata set corresponds to the intensity of the interrogation beam requiredin order to achieve the dynamic light scattering data. In general, butnot always, when the reported “% transmission” is below 50%, very strongparticle and/or particle/ordered water structures are present. Also,when the “% transmission” approaches 100%, often ions and/or very smallparticles (e.g., pico-sized particles) are present and the reportedhydrodynamic radii may comprise more ordered or structured water thenactual solid particles.

It should be noted that the dynamic light scattering particle sizeinformation is different from the TEM measured histograms becausedynamic light scattering uses algorithms that assume the nanocrystalsare all spheres (which they are not) as well as measures thehydrodynamic radius (e.g., the nanocrystal's influence on the water isalso detected and reported in addition to the actual physical radii ofthe particles). Accordingly, it is not surprising that there is adifference in the reported particle sizes between those reported in theTEM histogram data and those reported in the dynamic light scatteringdata, just as in the other Examples included herein.

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy

The AAS values were obtained from a Perkin Elmer Analyst 400Spectrometer system.

I) Principle

-   -   The technique of flame atomic absorption spectroscopy requires a        liquid sample to be aspirated, aerosolized and mixed with        combustible gases, such as acetylene and air. The mixture is        ignited in a flame whose temperature ranges from about 2100 to        about 2400 degrees C. During combustion, atoms of the element of        interest in the sample are reduced to free, unexcited ground        state atoms, which absorb light at characteristic wavelengths.        The characteristic wavelengths are element specific and are        accurate to 0.01-0.1 nm. To provide element specific        wavelengths, a light beam from a hollow cathode lamp (HCL),        whose cathode is made of the element being determined, is passed        through the flame. A photodetector detects the amount of        reduction of the light intensity due to absorption by the        analyte. A monochromator is used in front of the photodetector        to reduce background ambient light and to select the specific        wavelength from the HCL required for detection. In addition, a        deuterium arc lamp corrects for background absorbance caused by        non-atomic species in the atom cloud.

II) Sample Preparation

-   -   10 mL of sample, 0.6 mL of 36%v/v hydrochloric acid and 0.15 mL        of 50% v/v nitric acid are mixed together in a glass vial and        incubated for about 10 minutes in 70 degree C. water bath. If        gold concentration in the suspension is expected to be above        lOppm a sample is diluted with DI water before addition of the        acids to bring final gold concentration in the range of 1 to 10        ppm. For example, for a gold concentration around 100 ppm, 0.5        mL of sample is diluted with 9.5 mL of DI water before the        addition of acids. Aliquoting is performed with adjustable        micropipettes and the exact amount of sample, DI water and acids        is measured by an Ohaus PA313 microbalance. The weights of        components are used to correct measured concentration for        dilution by DI water and acids.    -   Each sample is prepared in triplicate and after incubation in        water bath is allowed to cool down to room temperature before        measurements are made.

III) Instrument Setup

-   -   The following settings are used for Perkin Elmer Analyst 400        Spectrometer system:    -   a) Burner head: 10 cm single-slot type, aligned in three axes        according to the manufacture procedure to obtain maximum        absorbance with a 2 ppm Cu standard.    -   b) Nebulizer: plastic with a spacer in front of the impact bead.    -   c) Gas flow: oxidant (air) flow rate about 12 L/min, fuel        (acetylene) flow rate about 1.9 mL/min.    -   d) Lamp/monochromator: Au hollow cathode lamp, 10 mA operating        current, 1.8/1.35 mm slits, 242.8 nm wavelength, background        correction (deuterium lamp) is on.

IV) Analysis Procedure

-   -   a) Run the Au lamp and the flame for approximately 30 minutes to        warm up the system.    -   b) Calibrate the instrument with 1 ppm, 4 ppm and 10 ppm Au        standards in a matrix of 3.7% v/v hydrochloric acid. Use 3.7%        v/v hydrochloric acid as a blank.    -   c) Verify calibration scale by measuring 4 ppm standard as a        sample. The measured concentration should be between 3.88 ppm        and 4.12 ppm. Repeat step b) if outside that range.    -   d) Measure three replicas of a sample. If the standard deviation        between replicas is higher than 5%, repeat measurement,        otherwise proceed to the next sample.    -   e) Perform verification step c) after measuring six samples or        more often. If verification fails, perform steps b) and c) and        remeasure all the samples measured after the last successful        verification.

V) Data Analysis

-   -   Measured concentration value for each replica is corrected for        dilution by water and acid to calculate actual sample        concentration. The reported Au ppm value is the average of three        corrected values for individual replica.

Plasma Irradiance and Characterization

This Example provides a spectrographic analysis of the adjustableplasmas 4, utilizing a gold electrode 1, all of which were utilized inthe Examples herein. Three different spectrometers with highsensitivities were used to collect spectral information about theplasmas 4. Specifically, spectrographic analysis was conducted onseveral gold electrode plasmon. The species in the plasmas 4, as well asdifferent intensities of some of the species, were observed. Thepresence/absence of such species can affect (e.g., positively andnegatively) processing parameters and products made according to theteachings herein.

In this regard, FIG. 25f shows a schematic view, in perspective, of theexperimental setup used to collect emission spectroscopy informationfrom the adjustable plasmas 4 utilized herein.

Specifically, the experimental setup for collecting plasma emission data(e.g., irradiance) is depicted in FIG. 25f . In general, threespectrometers 520, 521 and 522 receive emission spectroscopy datathrough a UV optical fiber 523 which transmits collimated spectralemissions collected by the assembly 524, along the path 527. Theassembly 524 can be vertically positioned to collect spectral emissionsat different vertical locations within the adjustable plasma 4 by movingthe assembly 524 with the X-Z stage 525. Accordingly, thepresence/absence and intensity of plasma species can be determined as afunction of interrogation location within the plasma 4. The output ofthe spectrometers 520, 521 and 522 was analyzed by appropriate softwareinstalled in the computer 528. All irradiance data was collected throughthe hole 531 which was positioned to be approximately opposite to thenon-reflective material 530. The bottom of the hole 531 was located atthe top surface of the liquid 3. More details of the apparatus forcollecting emission radiance follows below.

The assembly 524 contained one UV collimator (LC-10U) with a refocusingassembly (LF-10U100) for the 170-2400 nm range. The assembly 524 alsoincluded an SMA female connector made by Multimode Fiber Optics, Inc.Each LC-10U and LF-10U100 had one UV fused silica lens associatedtherewith. Adjustable focusing was provided by LF-10U100 at about 100 mmfrom the vortex of the lens in LF-10U100 also contained in the assembly524.

The collimator field of view at both ends of the adjustable plasma 4 wasabout 1.5 mm in diameter as determined by a 455 μm fiber core diametercomprising the solarization resistant UV optical fiber 523 (180-900 nmrange and made by Mitsubishi). The UV optical fiber 523 was terminatedat each end by an SMA male connector (sold by Ocean Optics;QP450-1-XSR).

The UV collimator-fiber system 523 and 524 provided 180-900 nm range ofsensitivity for plasma irradiance coming from the 1.5 mm diameter plasmacylinder horizontally oriented in different locations in the adjustableplasma 4.

The X-Z stage 525 comprised two linear stages (PT1) made by ThorlabsInc., that hold and control movement of the UV collimator 524 along theX and Z axes. It is thus possible to scan the adjustable plasma 4horizontally and vertically, respectively.

Emission of plasma radiation collected by UV collimator-fiber system523, 524 was delivered to either of three fiber coupled spectrometers520, 521 or 522 made by StellarNet, Inc. (i.e., EPP2000-HR for 180-295nm, 2400 g/mm grating, EPP2000-HR for 290-400 nm, 1800 g/mm grating, andEPP2000-HR for 395-505 nm, 1200 g/mm grating). Each spectrometer 520,521 and 522 had a 7 μm entrance slit, 0.1 nm optical resolution and a2048-pixel CCD detector. Measured instrumental spectral line broadeningis 0.13 nm at 313.1 nm.

Spectral data acquisition was controlled by SpectraWiz software forWindows/XP made by StellarNet. All three EPP2000-HR spectrometers 520,521 and 522 were interfaced with one personal computer 528 equipped with4 USB ports. The integration times and number of averages for variousspectral ranges and plasma discharges were set appropriately to provideunsaturated signal intensities with the best possible signal to noiseratios. Typically, spectral integration time was order of 1 second andnumber averaged spectra was in range 1 to 10. All recorded spectra wereacquired with subtracted optical background. Optical background wasacquired before the beginning of the acquisition of a corresponding setof measurements each with identical data acquisition parameters.

Each UV fiber-spectrometer system (i.e., 523/520, 523/521 and 523/522)was calibrated with an AvaLight -DH-CAL Irradiance Calibrated LightSource, made by Avantes (not shown). After the calibration, all acquiredspectral intensities were expressed in (absolute) units of spectralirradiance (mW/m²/nm), as well as corrected for the nonlinear responseof the UV-fiber-spectrometer. The relative error of the AvaLight -DH-CALIrradiance Calibrated Light Source in 200-1100 nm range is not higherthan 10%.

Alignment of the field of view of the UV collimator assembly 524relative to the tip 9 of the metal electrode 1 was performed before eachset of measurements. The center of the UV collimator assembly 524 fieldof view was placed at the tip 9 by the alignment of two linear stagesand by sending a light through the UV collimator-fiber system 523, 524to the center of each metal electrode 1.

The X-Z stage 525 was utilized to move the assembly 524 into roughly ahorizontal, center portion of the adjustable plasma 4, while being ableto move the assembly 524 vertically such that analysis of the spectralemissions occurring at different vertical heights in the adjustableplasma 4 could be made. In this regard, the assembly 524 was positionedat different heights, the first of which was located as close aspossible of the tip 9 of the electrode 1, and thereafter moved away fromthe tip 9 in specific amounts. The emission spectroscopy of the plasmaoften did change as a function of interrogation position.

For example, FIGS. 25g-25j show the irradiance data associated with agold (Au) electrode 1 utilized to form the adjustable plasma 4. Each ofthe aforementioned FIGS. 25g-25j show emission data associated withthree different vertical interrogation locations within the adjustableplasma 4. The vertical position “0” (0 nm) corresponds to emissionspectroscopy data collected immediately adjacent to the tip 9 of theelectrode 1; the vertical position “1/40” (0.635 nm) corresponds toemission spectroscopy data 0.635 mm away from the tip 9 and toward thesurface of the water 3; and the vertical position “3/20” (3.81 mm)corresponds to emission spectroscopy data 3.81 mm away from the tip 9and toward the surface of the water 3.

Table 2d shows specifically each of the spectral lines identified in theadjustable plasma 4 when a gold electrode 1 was utilized to create theplasma 4.

TABLE 2d λ meas. − λ tab. λ meas. λ tab. En Em Amn Transition (nm) (nm)(nm) (1/cm) (1/cm) gn gm (1/s) NO A²Σ⁺ − X²Π γ-system: (1-0) 214.7214.7000 0.0000 NO A²Σ⁺ − X²Π γ-system: (0-0) 226.9 226.8300 −0.0700 NOA²Σ⁺ − X²Π γ-system: (0-1) 236.3 236.2100 −0.0900 Au | 5d¹⁰6s ²S_(1/2) −5d¹⁰6p ²P⁰ _(3/2) 242.795 242.7900 −0.0050 0 41174.613 2 4 1.99E+8 NOA²Σ⁺ − X²Π γ-system: (0-2) 247.1 246.9300 −0.1700 NO A²Σ⁺ − X²Πγ-system: (0-3) 258.3 258.5300 0.2300 NO A²Σ⁺ − X²Π γ-system: (1-1)267.1 267.0600 −0.0400 Au | 5d¹⁰6s ²S_(1/2) − 5d¹⁰6p ²P⁰ _(1/2) 267.595267.59 −0.0050 0 37358.991 2 2 1.64E+8 NO A²Σ⁺ − X²Π γ-system: (0-4) 271271.1400 0.1400 Au | 5d⁹6s² ²D_(5/2) − 5d⁹(²D_(5/2))6s6p ²4⁰ _(7/2)274.825 274.82 −0.0050 9161.177 45537.195 6 8 OH A²Σ − X²Π (1-0) 281.2281.2000 0.0000 OH A²Σ − X²Π (1-0) 282 281.9600 −0.0400 N₂ (C³Σ_(u) −B³Π_(g)) 2⁺-system (4-2) 295.32 295.3300 0.0100 N₂ (C³Σ_(u) − B³Π_(g))2⁺-system (3-1) 296.2 296.1900 −0.0100 N₂ (C³Σ_(u) − B³Π_(g)) 2⁺-system(2-0) 297.7 297.7000 0.0000 OH A²Σ − X²Π: (0-0) 306.537 306.4600 −0.0770OH A²Σ − X²Π: (0-0) 306.776 306.8400 0.0640 OH A²Σ − X²Π: (0-0) 307.844307.8700 0.0260 OH A²Σ − X²Π: (0-0) 308.986 309.0700 0.0840 N₂ (C³Π_(u)− B³Π_(g)) 2⁺-system (2-1) 313.57 313.5800 0.0100 N₂ (C³Π_(u) − B³Π_(g))2⁺-system (1-0) 316 315.9200 −0.0800 O₂ (B³Σ⁻ _(u) − X³Σ⁻ _(g)) (0-14)337 337.0800 0.0800 N₂ (C³Π_(u) − B³Π_(g)) 2⁺-system (0-0) 337.1337.1400 0.0400 N₂ (C³Π_(u) − B³Π_(g)) 2⁺-system (2-3) 350.05 349.9700−0.0800 N₂ (C³Π_(u) − B³Π_(g)) 2⁺-system (1-2) 353.67 353.6400 −0.0300N₂ (C³Π_(u) − B³Π_(g)) 2⁺-system (0-1) 357.69 357.6500 −0.0400 N₂ ⁺(B²Σ⁺ _(u) − X²⁺ _(g)) 1⁻-system (1-0) 358.2 358.2000 0.0000 N₂ (C³Π_(u)− B³Π_(g)) 2⁺-system (2-4) 371 370.9500 −0.0500 N₂ (C³Π_(u) − B³Π_(g))2⁺-system (1-3) 375.54 375.4500 −0.0900 N₂ (C³Π_(u) − B³Π_(g)) 2⁺-system(0-2) 380.49 380.4000 −0.0900 N₂ ⁺ (B²Σ⁺ _(u) − X²⁺ ₉) 1⁻-system (1-1)388.4 388.4200 0.0200 N₂ ⁺ (B²Σ⁺ _(u) − X²⁺ _(g)) 1⁻-system (0-0) 391.4391.3700 −0.0300 N₂ (C³Π_(u) − B³Π_(g)) 2⁺-system (1-4) 399.8 399.7100−0.0900 N₂ (C³Π_(u) − B³Π_(g)) 2⁺-system (0-3) 405.94 405.8100 −0.1300N₂ (C³Π_(u) − B³Π_(g)) 2⁺-system (4-8) 409.48 409.4900 0.0100 N₂ ⁺ (B²Σ⁺_(u) − X²⁺ _(g)) 1⁻-system (2-3) 419.96 420.0000 0.0400 N₂ ⁺ (B²Σ⁺ _(u)− X²⁺ _(g)) 1⁻-system (1-2) 423.65 423.6400 −0.0100 N₂ ⁺ (B²Σ⁺ _(u) −X²⁺ _(g)) 1⁻-system (0-1) 427.785 427.7700 −0.0150 N₂ (C³Π_(u) −B³Π_(g)) 2⁺-system (3-8) 441.67 441.6200 −0.0500 Au | 5d⁹(²D_(5/2))6s6p²4⁰ _(7/2) − 5d⁹(²D_(5/2))6s6p 10_(7/2) 448.8263 448.7500 −0.076345537.195 67811.329 8 8 N₂ ⁺ (B²Π⁺ _(u) − X²⁺ _(g)) 1⁻-system (1-3)465.1 465.1300 0.0300 N₂ ⁺ (B²Π⁺ _(u) − X²⁺ _(g)) 1⁻-system (0-2) 470.9470.8400 −0.0600 Na | 3s ²S_(1/2) − 3p ²P⁰ _(3/2) 588.99 588.995 0.0050H | 2p ²P_(3/2) − 3d ²D_(5/2) 656.2852 655.8447 −0.4405 82259.28797492.357 4 6 6.47E+7 N | 3s ⁴P_(5/2) − 3p ⁴S_(3/2) 746.8312 746.88150.0503 83364.62 96750.84 6 4 1.93E+7 N₂ (B³Π_(g) − A³Σ⁻ _(u)) 1⁺-system750 749.9618 −0.0382 O | 3s ⁵S₂ − 3p⁵P₃ 777.1944 776.8659 −0.328573768.2 86631.454 5 7 3.69E+7 O | 3s ³S₁ − 3p ³P₂ 844.6359 844.2905−0.3454 76794.978 88631.146 3 5 3.22E+7 N | 3s ⁴P_(5/2) − 3p ⁴D_(7/2)868.0282 868.2219 0.1937 83364.62 94881.82 6 8 2.46E+7 O | 3p ⁵P₃ − 3d⁵D₄ 926.6006 926.3226 −0.2780 86631.454 97420.63 7 9 4.45E+7

A variety of species associated with the gold metallic electrode 1 areidentified in Table 2d. These species include, for example, gold fromthe electrodes 1, as well as common species including, NO, OH, N₂, etc.It is interesting to note that some species' existence and/or intensity(e.g., amount) is a function of location within the adjustable plasma.Accordingly, this suggests that various species can be caused to occuras a function of a variety of processing conditions (e.g., power,location, composition of electrode 1, etc.) of the invention.

EXAMPLES 8-10 Manufacturing Gold-Based Nanocrystal Suspensions GB-018,GB-019 and GB-020

In general, each of Examples 8-10 utilize certain embodiments of theinvention associated with the apparatuses generally shown in FIGS. 17a,18a, 19b and 22a (e.g., a tapered trough member 30 b). Specificdifferences in processing and apparatus will be apparent in eachExample.

The trough members 30 a and 30 b were made from ⅛″ (about 3 mm) thickplexiglass, and ¼″ (about 6 mm) thick polycarbonate, respectively. Thesupport structure 34 was also made from plexiglass which was about ¼″thick (about 6-7 mm thick). The cross-sectional shape of the troughmember 30 a shown in FIG. 18a corresponds to that shape shown in FIG.10b (i.e., a truncated “V”). The base portion “R” of the truncated “V”measured about 0.5″ (about 1 cm), and each side portion “S”, “S′”measured about 1.5″ (about 3.75 cm). The distance “M” separating theside portions “S”, “S′” of the V-shaped trough member 30 a was about2¼″-2 5/16″ (about 5.9 cm) (measured from inside to inside). Thethickness of each portion also measured about ⅛″ (about 3 mm) thick. Thelongitudinal length “LT” (refer to FIG. 11a ) of the V-shaped troughmember 30 a measured about 3 feet (about 1 meter) long from point 31 topoint 32.

Purified water (discussed elsewhere herein) was mixed with NaHCO₃ in arange of about 0.396 to 0.528 g/L of NaHCO₃ and was used as the liquid 3input into trough member 30 a. While this range of NaHCO₃ utilized waseffective, it should not be viewed as limiting the metes and bounds ofthe invention. The depth “d” (refer to FIG. 10b ) of the water 3 in theV-shaped trough member 30 a was about 7/16″ to about ½″ (about 11 mm toabout 13 mm) at various points along the trough member 30 a. The depth“d” was partially controlled through use of the dam 80 (shown in FIG.18a ). Specifically, the dam 80 was provided near the end 32 andassisted in creating the depth “d” (shown in FIG. 10b ) to be about7/6″-½″ (about 11-13 mm) in depth. The height “j” of the dam 80 measuredabout ¼″ (about 6 mm) and the longitudinal length “k” measured about ½″(about 13 mm). The width (not shown) was completely across the bottomdimension “R” of the trough member 30 a. Accordingly, the total volumeof water 3 in the V-shaped trough member 30 a during operation thereofwas about 6.4 in³ (about 105 ml).

The rate of flow of the water 3 into the trough member 30 a ranged fromabout 150 ml/minute to at least 280 ml/minute. Such flow of water 3 wasobtained by utilizing a Masterflex® L/S pump drive 40 rated at 0.1horsepower, 10-600 rpm. The model number of the Masterflex® pump 40 was77300-40. The pump drive had a pump head also made by Masterflex® knownas Easy-Load Model No. 7518-10. In general terms, the head for the pump40 is known as a peristaltic head. The pump 40 and head were controlledby a Masterflex® LS Digital Modular Drive. The model number for theDigital Modular Drive is 77300-80. The precise settings on the DigitalModular Drive were, for example, 150 milliliters per minute. Tygon®tubing having a diameter of ¼″ (i.e., size 06419-25) was placed into theperistaltic head. The tubing was made by Saint Gobain for Masterflex®.One end of the tubing was delivered to a first end 31 of the troughmember 30 a by a flow diffusion means located therein. The flowdiffusion means tended to minimize disturbance and bubbles in water 3introduced into the trough member 30 a as well as any pulsing conditiongenerated by the peristaltic pump 40. In this regard, a small reservoirserved as the diffusion means and was provided at a point verticallyabove the end 31 of the trough member 30 a such that when the reservoiroverflowed, a relatively steady flow of water 3 into the end 31 of theV-shaped trough member 30 a occurred.

There were 5 electrode sets used in Examples 8-10 and one electrode setwas a single electrode set 1 a/5 a located in the trough member 30 a.The plasma 4 from electrode 1 a in trough member 30 a was created withan electrode 1 similar in shape to that shown in FIGS. 5e , and weighedabout 9.2 grams. This electrode was 99.95% pure gold. The otherelectrode 5 a comprised a right-triangular shaped platinum platemeasuring about 14 mm×23 mm×27 mm and about 1 mm thick and having about9 mm submerged in the liquid 3′. The AC transformer used to create theplasma 4 was that transformer 60 shown in FIG. 16d and discussedelsewhere herein. AC transformers 50 (discussed elsewhere herein) wereconnected to the other electrode sets 5/5. All other pertinent runconditions are shown in Tables 3a, 3b and 3c.

The output of the processing-enhanced, conditioned water 3′ wascollected into a reservoir 41 and subsequently pumped by another pump40′ into a second trough member 30 b, at substantially the same rate aspump 40 (e.g., there was minimal evaporation in trough member 30 a). Thesecond trough member 30 b shown in FIG. 22a was tapered and measuredabout 3.75 inches high, about 3.75 inches wide at the end 32 thereof,and about 1 inch wide at the end 31 thereof, thus forming a taperedshape. This trough member 30 b contained about 1450 ml of liquid 3″therein which was about 2.5 inches deep. Each of four electrode sets 5b, 5 b′-5 e, 5 e′ comprised 99.95% pure gold wire which measured about 5inches (about 13 cm) in length, and about 0.5 mm in diameter in Examples8 and 9, and about 1.0 mm in diameter in Example 10. In each of Examples8-10, approximately 4.25 inches (about 11 cm) of the wire was submergedwithin the water 3″, which had a depth of about 2.5 inches (about 6 cm).Each electrode set 5 a, 5 a′-5 d, 5 d′ was shaped like a “J”, as shownin FIG. 17a . The distance “g” shown in FIG. 17a measured about 1-8 mm.

With regard to FIGS. 19b and 22a , 4 separate electrode sets (Set 2, Set3, Set 4 and Set 5) were attached to a single transformer device 50.Specifically, transformer 50 was the same transformer used in Examples5-7, but was electrically connected to each electrode set according tothe wiring diagram shown in FIG. 19b . In contrast, this wiringconfiguration was different than that used in Examples 5-7, discussedabove, only a single transformer 50 was required due to the loweramperage requirements (e.g., less wire was in contact with the liquid 3)of this inventive trough 30 b design.

Each of Tables 3a-3c contains processing information relative to each ofthe 4 electrode sets by “Set #”. Each electrode of the 4 electrode setsin trough 30 b was set to operate at a specific target voltage. Actualoperating voltages of about 255 volts, as listed in each of Tables3a-3c, were applied to the four electrode sets. The distance “c-c” (withreference to FIG. 14) from the centerline of each electrode set to theadjacent electrode set is also represented. Further, the distance “x”associated with the electrode 1 utilized in trough 30 a is alsoreported. For the electrode 5's, no distance “x” is reported. Otherrelevant parameters are reported in each of Tables 3a-3c.

All materials for the electrodes 1/5 were obtained from ESPI having anaddress of 1050 Benson Way, Ashland, Oreg. 97520.

The water 3 used in Examples 8-10 was produced by a Reverse Osmosisprocess and deionization process and was mixed with the NaHCO₃processing-enhancer and together was input into the trough member 30 a.In essence, Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a pressure driven membraneseparation process that separates species that are dissolved and/orsuspended substances from the ground water. It is called “reverse”osmosis because pressure is applied to reverse the natural flow ofosmosis (which seeks to balance the concentration of materials on bothsides of the membrane). The applied pressure forces the water throughthe membrane leaving the contaminants on one side of the membrane andthe purified water on the other. The reverse osmosis membrane utilizedseveral thin layers or sheets of film that are bonded together androlled in a spiral configuration around a plastic tube. (This is alsoknown as a thin film composite or TFC membrane.) In addition to theremoval of dissolved species, the RO membrane also separates outsuspended materials including microorganisms that may be present in thewater. After RO processing a mixed bed deionization filter was used. Thetotal dissolved solvents (“TDS”) after both treatments was about 0.2ppm, as measured by an Accumet® AR20 pH/conductivity meter.

TABLE 3a 0.528 mg/ml of NaHCO₃ (Au) Run ID: GB-018 Flow Rate: 280 ml/minVoltage: 255 V NaHCO₃: 0.528 mg/ml Wire Dia.: .5 mm Configuration: J/JPPM:  2.9 Zeta: −98.84 Distance Distance Electrode “c-c” “x” cross Set ## in/mm in/mm Voltage section   4.5/114.3* 1 1a 0.25 750 V 5a N/A 750  23/584.2** 2.5/63.5* 2 5b N/A 255  5b′ N/A 3.5/88.9 3 5c N/A 255Tapered  5c′ N/A 3″Deep 3.5/88.9 4 5d N/A 255  5d′ N/A 3.5/88.9 5 5e N/A255  5e′ N/A 376.2** Output 80 C. Water Temperature *Distance from waterinlet to center of first electrode set **Distance from center of lastelectrode set to water outlet

TABLE 3b 0.396 mg/ml of NaHCO₃ (Au) Run ID: GB-019 Flow Rate: 150 ml/minVoltage: 255 V NaHCO₃: 0.396 mg/ml Wire Dia.: 1 mm Configuration: J/JPPM:  23.6 Zeta: −56.6 Distance Distance Electrode “c-c” “x” cross Set ## in/mm in/mm Voltage section   4.5/114.3* 1 1a 0.25/6.35 750 V 5a N/A750   23/584.2**  2.5/63.5* 2 5b N/A 255  5b′ N/A 3.5/88.9 3 5c N/A 255Tapered  5c′ N/A 3″Deep 3.5/88.9 4 5d N/A 255  5d′ N/A 3.5/88.9 5 5e N/A255  5e′ N/A 376.2** Output 97 C. Water Temperature *Distance from waterinlet to center of first electrode set **Distance from center of lastelectrode set to water outlet

TABLE 3c 0.396 mg/ml of NaHCO₃ (Au) Run ID: GB-020 Flow Rate: 250 ml/minVoltage: 255 V NaHCO₃: 0.396 mg/ml Wire Dia.: 1 mm Configuration: J/JPPM:  4.9 Zeta: −58.01 Distance Distance Electrode “c-c” “x” cross Set ## in/mm in/mm Voltage section  4.5/114.3* 1 1a 0.25 750 V 5a N/A 750  23/584.2** 2.5/63.5* 2 5b N/A 255  5b′ N/A 3.5/88.9 3 5c N/A 255Tapered  5c′ N/A 3″Deep 3.5/88.9 4 5d N/A 255  5d′ N/A 3.5/88.9 5 5e N/A255  5e′ N/A 376.2** Output 86 C. Water Temperature *Distance from waterinlet to center of first electrode set **Distance from center of lastelectrode set to water outlet

FIGS. 28a, 29a and 30a are representative TEM photomicrographscorresponding to dried suspensions GB-018, GB-019 and GB-020,respectively, showing gold crystals grown in each of Examples 8, 9 and10.

FIGS. 28b, 29b and 30b are particle size distribution histogramsmeasured from the TEM photomicrographs (i.e., using the softwaredescribed earlier in Examples 5-7) corresponding to dried suspensionstaken from Examples 8, 9 and 10, respectively.

FIGS. 28c, 29c, and 30c show dynamic light scattering data (i.e.,hydrodynamic radii) of the gold nanocrystal suspensions made in each ofExamples 8, 9 and 10, respectively. Each of these Figures shows thegraphical results of dynamic light scattering data sets.

It should be noted that the dynamic light scattering particle sizeinformation is different from the TEM measured histograms becausedynamic light scattering uses algorithms that assume the crystals areall spheres (which they are not) as well as measures the hydrodynamicradius (e.g., the crystal's influence on the water is also detected andreported in addition to the actual physical radii of the crystals).Accordingly, it is not surprising that there is a difference in thereported crystal sizes between those reported in the TEM histogram dataand those reported in the dynamic light scattering data, just as in theother Examples included herein.

EXAMPLE 11 Manufacturing Gold-Based Nanoparticles/Nanoparticle Solutionsor Colloids IAC-202-7 by a Batch Process

This Example utilizes a batch process according to the presentinvention. FIG. 24a shows the apparatus used to condition the liquid 3.Once conditioned, the liquid 3′ was processed in the apparatus shown inFIG. 24 b.

Table 4a shows a matrix where the amount of processing enhancer bakingsoda (i.e., NaHCO₃) varies from about 1 gram/gallon to about 2grams/gallon (i.e., about 0.264 g/L to about 0.528 g/L); and the dwelltime reflected in Table 4a in the apparatus of FIG. 24a (i.e., theamount of time that the water 3 with processing enhancer was exposed tothe plasma 4) was varied from about 20 minutes to about 60 minutes,prior to subsequent processing in the apparatus shown in FIG. 24c . Theapplied voltage for each plasma 4 made by electrode 1 was about 750volts. This voltage was achieved by a transformer 60 (i.e., the BalancedMid-Point Referenced Design) discussed elsewhere herein. A second anddifferent transformer was electrically connected to the electrodes 5 a/5 b shown in FIG. 24c . This transformer was an by AC power sourcehaving a voltage range of 0-300V, a frequency range of 47-400 Hz and amaximum power rating of 1 kVA. The applied voltage for each identifiedrun in Tables 4a and 4b was about 250 volts. The current changed as afunction of time with minimum and maximum amps reported in Table 4b. Allother process variables remained constant.

Accordingly, Table 4a shows that a number of variables (e.g., processingenhancer and predetermined dwell time) influence both the amount orconcentration of gold nanocrystals in water, and the size distributionof the gold nanocrystals. In general, as the concentration of theprocessing enhancer increases from about lg/gallon (0.264 g/L) to about2 g/gallon (0.528 g/L), the concentration (i.e., “ppm”) more or lessincreases under a given set of processing conditions. However, in somecases the particle size distribution (“psd”) unfavorably increases suchthat the formed nanocrystals were no longer stable, and they “settled”,as a function of time (e.g., an unstable suspension was made). Thesesettling conditions were not immediate thus suggesting that thissuspension of nanocrystals in water could be processed immediately intoa useful product, such as, for example, a gel or cream. This Exampleshows clearly various important effects of multiple processing variableswhich can be translated, at least directionally, to the inventivecontinuous processes disclosed elsewhere herein. These data areillustrative and should not be viewed as limiting the metes and boundsof the present invention. Moreover, these illustrative data shouldprovide an artisan of ordinary skill with excellent operationaldirections to pursue.

As a specific example, Table 4c shows that a first electrode Set #1(i.e., FIG. 24a ) was operating at a voltage of about 750 volts, to formthe plasma 4. This is similar to the other plasmas 4 reported elsewhereherein. However, electrode Set #2 (i.e., FIG. 24c ) was powered by thehy-AC source discussed above.

TABLE 4a Pretreatment Dwell (minutes) 20 40 60 1AC-201 1AC-202 1AC-2011AC-202 1AC-201 1AC-202 NaHCO₃ .264 ppm 1AC- 11.8 1AC- 11.1 1AC- 13.51AC- 11.4 1AC- 14.3 1AC- 12.2 (mg/ml) psd 201-9 18.4 202-1 19.1 201-819.5 202-2 18.4 201-7 16.8 202-3 19.6 .396 ppm 1AC- 20.1 1AC- 16.1 1AC-21.4 1AC- settled 1AC- 23.3 1AC- settled psd 201-6 21.4 202-7 32.3 201-5126 202-8 84.8 201-4 36.3 202-9 23.8 .528 ppm 1AC- 27.4 1AC- 23 1AC-31.1 1AC- 24.9 1AC- settled 1AC- settled psd 201-1 17.1 202-4 43.8 201-221.6 202-5 21.4 201-3 190 202-6 settled

TABLE 4b Pretreatment Dwell (minutes) Current 20 40 60 Amps 1AC-2011AC-202 1AC-201 1AC-202 1AC-201 1AC-202 NaHCO₃ .264 min 1AC- 0.405 1AC-0.382 1AC- 0.41 1AC- 0.411 1AC- 0.432 1AC- 0.461 (mg/ml) max 201-9 1.1202-1 1 201-8 1 202-2 1.06 201-7 1 202-3 1.13 .396 min 1AC- 0.554 1AC-0.548 1AC- 0.591 1AC- 0.598 1AC- 0.617 1AC- 0.681 max 201-6 1.6 202-71.35 201-5 1.6 202-8 1.43 201-4 1.6 202-9 1.43 .528 min 1AC- 0.686 1AC-0.735 1AC- 0.843 1AC- 0.769 1AC- 0.799 1AC- 0.865 max 201-1 1.82 202-41.6 201-2 2.06 202-5 2 201-3 2.01 202-6 2.1

TABLE 4c 1.5 g/Gal of NaHCO₃ (Au) Run ID: 1AC-202-7 Pretreatment: 20 minGZA in 3600 ml Volume: 800 ml Run time: 35 minutes Voltage: 250 VNaHCO₃: 0.396 mg/ml Wire Dia.: .5 mm Configuration: J/J PPM: 16.1 Zeta:n/a Distance Electrode “x” Set # # in/mm Voltage 1 1a 0.25/6.35 750 5aN/A 750 2 5b N/A 250  5b′ N/A

FIG. 31a shows a representative TEM Photomicrograph of gold crystals,dried from solution, made according to this Example 11.

FIG. 31b shows the particle size distribution histogram based on TEMmeasurements of the dried gold nanocrystals made according to Example11.

FIG. 31c shows graphical dynamic light scattering particle size data(i.e., hydrodynamic radii) from this Example 11. Specifically, arepresentative Viscotek data set is set forth in this Figure, similar towhat is reported elsewhere herein.

It should be noted that the dynamic light scattering particle sizeinformation is different from the TEM measured histograms becausedynamic light scattering uses algorithms that assume the nanocrystalsare all spheres (which they are not) as well as measures thehydrodynamic radius (e.g., the nanocrystal's influence on the water isalso detected and reported in addition to the actual physical radii ofthe nanocrystals). Accordingly, it is not surprising that there is adifference in the reported nanocrystals sizes between those reported inthe TEM histogram data and those reported in the dynamic lightscattering data, just as in the other Examples included herein.

EXAMPLE 12 Manufacturing Gold-Based Nanoparticles/Nanoparticle Solutionsor Colloids IAC-261 by a Batch Process

This Example utilizes a batch process according to the presentinvention. FIG. 24a shows the apparatus used to condition the liquid 3.Once conditioned, the liquid 3′ was processed in the apparatus shown inFIG. 24c

The amount of processing enhancer baking soda (i.e., NaHCO₃) was about1.5 grams/gallon (i.e., about 0.396 g/L). The amount of time that thewater 3 with processing enhancer was exposed to the plasma 4 was about60 minutes, prior to subsequent processing in the apparatus shown inFIG. 24 c.

The applied voltage for each plasma 4 made by electrode 1 was about 750volts. This voltage was achieved by a transformer 60 (i.e., the BalancedMid-Point Referenced Design) discussed elsewhere herein. A second anddifferent transformer was electrically connected to the electrodes 5 a/5b shown in FIG. 24c . This transformer was an by AC power source havinga voltage range of 0-300V, a frequency range of 47-400 Hz and a maximumpower rating of 1 kVA. The applied voltage was about 300 volts. Thecurrent changed as a function of time with minimum amps being 0.390 andmaximum amps being 0.420 amps over a 60-minute operating time. Thediameter of the gold wire electrodes was 1 mm.

The amount of gold nanoparticles produced in the suspension was about13.7 ppm as measured by the atomic absorption spectroscopy techniquesdiscussed elsewhere herein. The sizes and shapes of the nanoparticlesmade according to this Example are fully discussed in Table 12 herein

FIG. 33a shows a representative TEM Photomicrograph of gold crystals,dried from suspension 1AC-261, made according to this Example 12.

FIG. 33b shows the particle size distribution histogram based on TEMmeasurements of the dried gold nanoparticles made according to Example12.

EXAMPLE 13 Manufacturing Gold-Based Nanocrystals/Nanocrystal SuspensionsGB-154-20 Hz, GB-157-40 Hz, GB-159-60 Hz, GB-161-80 Hz, GB-173-100 Hzand GB-156-300 Hz)

In general, this Example used the same manufacturing set-up used formaking GB-134 in Example 16, and for the sake of brevity, the specificsof the trough apparatus used are discussed in detail in that Example.The primary difference in making the suspensions or colloids in thisExample is that different sine waveform frequencies from a programmableAC source were used as electrical inputs to the electrodes 5 a/5 b.

In particular, sine wave AC frequencies as low as 20 Hz and as high as300 Hz were utilized to make nanocrystal suspensions or colloids, inaccordance with the teachings herein. The AC power source 501AC utilizeda Chroma 61604 programmable AC source. The applied voltage was 300volts. The waveform was a sine wave at six different frequencies-20, 40,60, 80, 100 and 300 Hz. The applied current varied between 4.2 amps and4.8 amps.

FIG. 34a shows a representative TEM Photomicrograph of goldnanocrystals, dried from suspension GB-154; and FIG. 34b shows theparticle size distribution histogram based on TEM measurements of thedried gold nanocrystals from suspension GB-154.

FIG. 35a shows a representative TEM Photomicrograph of goldnanocrystals, dried from suspension GB-157; and FIG. 35b shows theparticle size distribution histogram based on TEM measurements of thedried gold nanocrystals from suspension GB-157.

FIG. 36a shows a representative TEM Photomicrograph of goldnanocrystals, dried from suspension GB-159; and FIG. 36b shows theparticle size distribution histogram based on TEM measurements of thedried gold nanocrystals from suspension GB-159.

FIG. 37a shows a representative TEM Photomicrograph of goldnanocrystals, dried from suspension GB-161; and FIG. 37b shows theparticle size distribution histogram based on TEM measurements of thedried gold nanocrystals from suspension GB-161.

FIG. 38a shows a representative TEM Photomicrograph of goldnanocrystals, dried from suspension GB-173; and FIG. 38b shows theparticle size distribution histogram based on TEM measurements of thedried gold nanocrystals from suspension GB-173.

FIG. 39a shows a representative TEM Photomicrograph of goldnanocrystals, dried from suspension GB-156; and FIG. 39b shows theparticle size distribution histogram based on TEM measurements of thedried gold nanocrystals from suspension GB-156.

It is clear form this Example that particle size “mode” and particlesize distribution both increased as a function of increasing thefrequency AC sine waveform under the conditions of this Example.

EXAMPLE 14 Manufacturing Gold-Based Nanocrystals/Nanocrystal Suspensions(GB-166-sine, GB-165-square and GB-162-triangle)

In general, this Example used the same manufacturing set-up used formaking GB-134 in Example 16, and for the sake of brevity, the specificsof the trough apparatus used are discussed in detail in that Example.The primary difference in making the suspensions or colloids in thisExample was three different types of waveforms (i.e., sine, square, andtriangular waves) were generated by a BK Precision 4040 20 MHz functiongenerator, 501FG. The waveform output was input into a chroma 61604programmable AC source, 501AC. The applied voltage for the sine waves(“SI”) and square waves (“SQ”) was 300 volts, while the applied voltagefor the triangular-shaped waveforms (“TR”) was 250 volts. Each of thesewaveforms is shown in FIG. 41. Specifically, GB-166 utilized a sinewave; GB-165 utilized a square wave; and GB-162 utilized a triangularwave as electrical inputs to the electrodes 5 a/ 5 b.

FIG. 42a shows a representative TEM Photomicrograph of goldnanocrystals, dried from suspension GB-166; and FIG. 42b shows theparticle size distribution histogram based on TEM measurements of thedried gold nanocrystals from suspension GB-166.

FIG. 43a shows a representative TEM Photomicrograph of goldnanocrystals, dried from suspension GB-165; and FIG. 43b shows theparticle size distribution histogram based on TEM measurements of thedried gold nanocrystals from suspension GB-165.

FIG. 44a shows a representative TEM Photomicrograph of goldnanocrystals, dried from suspension GB-162; and FIG. 44b shows theparticle size distribution histogram based on TEM measurements of thedried gold nanocrystals from suspension GB-162.

EXAMPLE 15 Manufacturing Gold-Based Nanoparticles/NanoparticleSuspensions (GB-163 and GB-164)

In general, this Example used the same manufacturing set-up used formaking GB-134 in Example 16, and for the sake of brevity, the specificsof the trough apparatus used are discussed in detail in that Example.The primary difference in making the suspensions or colloids in thisExample was that two different duty cycles for the triangular waveformsfrom the signal wave generator 501FG and programmable AC power source501AC (i.e., discusses in Example 14) were used. The applied voltage foreach triangular waveform was 250volts. Specifically, each of GB-166 andGB-164 utilized the triangular-shaped waveforms TR-1, TR-2 and TR-3shown in FIG. 45 as electrical inputs to the electrodes 5 a/ 5 b.Waveform TR-2 was the maximum duty cycle, while TR-3 was the minimumduty cycle.

FIG. 46a shows a representative TEM Photomicrograph of goldnanocrystals, dried from suspension GB-163; and FIG. 46b shows theparticle size distribution histogram based on TEM measurements of thedried gold nanocrystals from suspension GB-163.

FIG. 47a shows a representative TEM Photomicrograph of goldnanocrystals, dried from suspension GB-164; and FIG. 47b shows theparticle size distribution histogram based on TEM measurements of thedried gold nanocrystals from suspension GB-164.

EXAMPLE 16 Manufacturing Gold-Based Nanocrystals/Nanocrystal Suspensions(GB-134); (GB-098, GB-113 and GB-118); (GB-120 and GB-123); (GB-139);(GB-141 and GB-144); (GB-079, GB-089 and GB-062); and (GB-076 andGB-077)

In general, this Example 16 utilizes certain embodiments of theinvention associated with the apparatuses generally shown in FIGS. 20c-h, 21 b-g and 22 b. Additionally, Table 5 summarizes key processingparameters used in conjunction with FIGS. 20c -h, 21 b-g and 22 b. Also,Table 5 discloses: 1) resultant “ppm” (i.e., gold nanoparticleconcentrations), 2) a single number for “Hydrodynamic Radii” taken fromthe average of the three highest amplitude peaks shown in each of FIGS.49c -61 (discussed later herein) and 3) “TEM Average Diameter” which isthe mode, corresponding to the particle diameter that occurs mostfrequently, determined by TEM histogram graphs shown in FIGS. 49b-61b .These physical characterizations were performed as discussed elsewhereherein.

TABLE 5 Run ID: GB-134 GB-098 GB-113 GB-118 GB-120 GB-123 GB-139 Flow In(ml/min) 150  150 150 150 150  150  150 Rate: Out (ml/min) 110  110 110110 110  110  110 Set # 1 750  750 750 750 750  750  750 Volts: Set # 2300  297 300 300 300  300  300 Set #'s 3-9 300  297 300 300 300  300 300 PE: NaHCO3 (mg/ml)    0.53    0.40    0.53    0.53    0.53    0.53   0.53 Wire Diameter (mm)   1.0    1.0    1.0    1.0   1.0   1.0    1.0Contact “W_(L)” (in/mm) .75/19   1/25 0.5/13 0.5/13   0.5/13 0.5/13  0.75/19   Electrode Config. FIG. 17b  17b  17b  17c  17b  17b  17d Produced Au PPM   8.9    8.0   10.3    9.3   10.4   10.1   10.0 OutputTemp ° C. at 32 85  93  88  86 84 93  87 Dimensions Plasma 4 FIGS. 18a 18a  18a  18a  18a  18a  18a  Process FIGS. 20h, 21e 20f, 21b 20f, 21b20f, 21b 20g, 21d 20g, 21d 20c, 20h 21e, 21f, 21g M1 (in/mm) 2/51 1/25  2/51 2/51 3.5/89 2/51 2/51 M2 (in/mm) n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/aL_(T) (in/mm) 36/914  48/1219   36/914 36/914   36/914 36/914 36/914 d(in/mm) .75/19   1/25 0.5/13 0.5/13   0.5/13 0.5/13   0.75/19   S(in/mm) 1.5/38.1   3/76.2  2.5/63.5 2.5/63.5   2.5/63.5 2.5/63.51.5/38.1 Electrode Curr. (A)    0.56    0.53    0.53    0.52    0.51   0.48 FIG. 54d Total Curr. Draw (A) n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/aHydrodynamic r (nm)   16.2    20.02   12.8   12.3   12.8   12.8   15.9TEM Avg. Dia. (nm)   17.48    20.03    13.02    12.06   13.34   13.65   13.97 “c-c” (mm) 76  83  83  83 83 83  83 Set electrode # 1a 1a 1a 1a1a 1a 1a 1 “x” (in/mm) 0.25/6.4   0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4 0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4   0.25/6.4   electrode # 5a 5a 5a 5a 5a 5a 5a “c-c”(mm) 89  83  89  89 89 89  83 Set electrode # 5b 5b 5b 5b 5b 5b 5b 2 “x”(in/mm) n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a electrode #  5b′  5b′  5b′  5b′  5b′ 5b′  5b′ “c-c” (mm) 38  76  59  56 57 38  76 Set electrode # 5c 5c 5c5c 5c 5c 5c 3 electrode # 5c′ 5c′ 5c′ 5c′ 5c′ 5c′ 5c′ “c-c” (mm) 38 105 60  59 64 38  76 Set electrode # 5d 5d 5d 5d 5d 5d 5d 4 electrode # 5d′  5d′  5d′  5d′  5d′  5d′  5d′ “c-c” (mm) 89 143  70  68 70 44 127Set electrode # 5e 5e 5e 5e 5e 5e 5e 5 electrode # 5e′ 5e′ 5e′ 5e′ 5e′5e′ 5e′ “c-c” (mm) 89 165  84 103 70 51 127 Set electrode # 5f  5f  5f 5f  5f  5f  5f  6 electrode # 5f′ 5f′ 5f′ 5f′ 5f′ 5f′ 5f′ “c-c” (mm) 89178 108 102 64 54 127 Set electrode # 5g 5g 5g 5g 5g 5g 5g 7 electrode # 5g′  5g′  5g′  5g′  5g′  5g′  5g′ “c-c” (mm) 178  178 100 100 76 54 216Set electrode # 5h 5h 5h 5h 5h 5h 5h 8 electrode #  5h′  5h′  5h′  5h′ 5h′  5h′  5h′ “c-c” (mm) 89 216 127 135 76 57  83 Set electrode # n/a5i  5i  5i  5i  5i  n/a 9 electrode # n/a 5i′ 5i′ 5i′ 5i′ 5i′ n/a “c-c”(mm) n/a  76 191 178 324  464  n/a Run ID: GB-141 GB-144 GB-079 GB-089GB-062 GB-076 GB-077 Flow In (ml/min) 150 110 150 150 150 150 150 Rate:Out (ml/min) 110  62 110 110 110 110 110 Set # 1 750 750 750 750 750 750750 Volts: Set # 2 299 299 255 255 750 750 750 Set #'s 3-9 299 299 255255 249 306 313 PE: NaHCO3 (mg/ml)    0.53    0.53 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.530.40 Wire Diameter (mm)    1.0    1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Contact“W_(L)” (in/mm) 0.5/13   0.5/13   2/51 2/51 2/51 1/25 1/25 ElectrodeConfig. FIG. 17d  17d  17b  17b  17b  17b  17b  Produced Au PPM   10.1  20.2 10.8 12.4 16.7 7.8 7.5 Output Temp ° C. at 32  86  89 94 99 95 9897 Dimensions Plasma 4 FIGS. 18a  18a  18a  18a  18b  18b  18b  ProcessFIGS. 20c, 20h 20c, 20h 20d, 21c 20d, 21c 20e, 21c 20e, 22b 20e, 22b21e, 21f, 21e, 21f, 21g 21g M1 (in/mm) 2/51 2/51 1/25 0.75/19   1/252.7/68.6 2.7/686  M2 (in/mm) n/a n/a n/a  n/a  n/a  0.5/13   0.5/13  L_(T) (in/mm) 36/914 36/914 24/610 24/610 24/610 24/610 24/610 d (in/mm)0.5/13   0.5/13   2/51 2/51 2/51 1/25 1/25 S (in/mm) 1.5/38.1 1.5/38.13.3/83.8 3.3/83.8 3.3/83.8 3.5/88.9 3.5/88.9 Electrode Curr. (A) FIG.55d FIG. 56d 0.66 n/a  0.7 0.51 0.48 Total Curr. Draw (A) n/a n/a 11.948.98 12.48 13.62 12.47 Hydrodynamic r (nm)   26.2   16.4 14.9 17.2 17.09.7 11.5 TEM Avg. Dia. (nm)    11.42    18.12 10.63 15.89 11.75 11.078.69 “c-c” (mm) n/a  83 n/m n/m n/m n/m n/m Set electrode # n/a 1a 1a 1a1a 1a 1a 1 “x” (in/mm) n/a 0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4 0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4  electrode # n/a 5a 5a 5a 5a 5a 5a “c-c” (mm)  83  83n/m n/m n/m n/m n/m Set electrode # 5b 5b 5b 5b 1b 1b 1b 2 “x” (in/mm)n/a n/a n/a  n/a  0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4  electrode #  5b′  5b′ 5b′  5b′ 5b 5b 5b “c-c” (mm)  76  76 n/m n/m n/m n/m n/m Set electrode# 5c 5c 5c 5c 5c 5c 5c 3 electrode # 5c′ 5c′ 5c′ 5c′ 5c′ 5c′ 5c′ “c-c”(mm)  76  76 n/m n/m n/m n/m n/m Set electrode # 5d 5d 5d 5d 5d 5d 5d 4electrode #  5d′  5d′  5d′  5d′  5d′  5d′  5d′ “c-c” (mm) 127 127 n/mn/m n/m n/m n/m Set electrode # 5e 5e 5e 5e 5e 5e 5e 5 electrode # 5e′5e′ 5e′ 5e′ 5e′ 5e′ 5e′ “c-c” (mm) 127 127 n/m n/m n/m n/m n/m Setelectrode # 5f  5f  5f  5f  5f  5f  5f  6 electrode # 5f′ 5f′ 5f′ 5f′5f′ 5f′ 5f′ “c-c” (mm) 127 127 n/m n/m n/m n/m n/m Set electrode # 5g 5g5g 5g 5g 5g 5g 7 electrode #  5g′  5g′  5g′  5g′  5g′  5g′  5g′ “c-c”(mm) 216 216 n/m n/m n/m n/m n/m Set electrode # 5h 5h 5h 5h 5h 5h 5h 8electrode #  5h′  5h′  5h′  5h′  5h′  5h′  5h′ “c-c” (mm)  83  83 n/mn/m n/m n/m n/m Set electrode # n/a n/a n/a  n/a  5i  5i  5i  9electrode # n/a n/a n/a  n/a  5i′ 5i′ 5i′ “c-c” (mm) n/a n/a n/a  n/a n/m n/m n/m

All trough members 30 a′ and 30 b′ in the aforementioned Figures weremade from ⅛″ (about 3 mm) thick plexiglass, and ¼″ (about 6 mm) thickpolycarbonate, respectively. The support structure 34 (not shown in manyof the Figures but discussed elsewhere herein) was also made fromplexiglass which was about ¼″ thick (about 6-7 mm thick). In contrast tothe embodiments shown in FIGS. 19a and 19b , each trough member 30 a wasintegral with trough member 30 b′ and was thus designated 30 a′ (e.g.,no separate pumping means was provided after trough member 30 a, as incertain previous examples). The cross-sectional shape of each troughmember 30 a′ used in this Example corresponded to that shape shown inFIG. 10b (i.e., was a trapezoidal-shaped cross-section). Relevantdimensions for each trough member portion 30 b′ are reported in Table 5as “M1” (i.e., inside width of the trough at the entrance portion of thetrough member 30 b′), “M2” (i.e., inside width of the trough at the exitportion of the trough member 30 b′), “LT” (i.e., transverse length orflow length of the trough member 30 b′), “S” (i.e., the height of thetrough member 30 b′), and “d” (i.e., depth of the liquid 3″ within thetrough member 30 b′). In some embodiments, the distance “M” separatingthe side portions “S”, “S′” (refer to FIG. 10a ) of the trough member 30b′ were the same. In these cases, Table 5 represents a value dimensionfor only “M1” and the entry for “M2” is represented as “N/A”. In otherwords, some trough members 30 b′ were tapered along their longitudinallength and in other cases, the trough members 30 b′ were substantiallystraight along their longitudinal length. The thickness of each sidewallportion also measured about ¼″ (about 6 mm) thick. Three differentlongitudinal lengths “LT” are reported for the trough members 30 b′(i.e., either 610 mm, 914 mm or 1219 mm) however, other lengths LTshould be considered to be within the metes and bounds of the inventivetrough.

Table 5 shows that the processing enhancer NaHCO₃ was added to purifiedwater (discussed elsewhere herein) in amounts of either about 0.4 mg/mlor 0.53 mg/ml. It should be understood that other amounts of thisprocessing enhancer also function within the metes and bounds of theinvention. The purified water/ NaHCO₃ mixture was used as the liquid 3input into trough member 30 a′. The depth “d” of the liquid 3′ in thetrough member 30 a′ (i.e., where the plasma(s) 4 is/are formed) wasabout 7/16″ to about ½″ (about 11 mm to about 13 mm) at various pointsalong the trough member 30 a′. The depth “d′” was partially controlledthrough use of the dam 80 (shown in FIGS. 18a and 18b ). Specifically,the dam 80 was provided near the output end 32 of the trough member 30a′ and assisted in creating the depth “d” (shown in FIG. 10b as “d”) tobe about 7/6″-½″ (about 11-13 mm) in depth. The height “j” of the dam 80measured about ¼″ (about 6 mm) and the longitudinal length “k” measuredabout ½″ (about 13 mm). The width (not shown) was completely across thebottom dimension “R” of the trough member 30 a′. Accordingly, the totalvolume of liquid 3′ in the trough member 30 a′ during operation thereofwas about 2.14in³ (about 35ml) to about 0.89 in³ (about 14.58 ml).

The rate of flow of the liquid 3′ into the trough member 30 a′ as wellas into trough member 30 b′, was about 150 ml/minute for all but one ofthe formed samples (i.e., GB-144 which was about 110 ml/minute) and therate of flow out of the trough member 30 b′ at the point 32 was about110 ml/minute (i.e., due to evaporation) for all samples except GB-144,which was about 62 ml/minute. The amount of evaporation that occurred inGB-144 was a greater percent than the other samples because the dwelltime of the liquid 3″ in the trough member 30 b′ was longer relative tothe other samples made according to this embodiment. Other acceptableflow rates should be considered to be within the metes and bounds of theinvention.

Such flow of liquid 3′ was obtained by utilizing a Masterflex® L/S pumpdrive 40 rated at 0.1 horsepower, 10-600 rpm. The model number of theMasterflex® pump 40 was 77300-40. The pump drive had a pump head alsomade by Masterflex® known as Easy-Load Model No. 7518-10. In generalterms, the head for the pump 40 is known as a peristaltic head. The pump40 and head were controlled by a Masterflex® LS Digital Modular Drive.The model number for the Digital Modular Drive is 77300-80. The precisesettings on the Digital Modular Drive were, for example, 150 millilitersper minute for all samples except GB-144 which was, for example, 110ml/minute. Tygon® tubing having a diameter of ¼″ (i.e., size 06419-25)was placed into the peristaltic head. The tubing was made by SaintGobain for Masterflex®. One end of the tubing was delivered to a firstend 31 of the trough member 30′a by a flow diffusion means locatedtherein. The flow diffusion means tended to minimize disturbance andbubbles in water 3 introduced into the trough member 30 a′ as well asany pulsing condition generated by the peristaltic pump 40. In thisregard, a small reservoir served as the diffusion means and was providedat a point vertically above the end 31 of the trough member 30 a′ suchthat when the reservoir overflowed, a relatively steady flow of liquid3′ into the end 31 of the V-shaped trough member 30 a′ occurred.

Table 5 shows that there was a single electrode set 1 a/5 a, or twoelectrode sets 1 a/5 a, utilized in this Example 18. The plasma(s) 4was/were created with an electrode 1 similar in shape to that shown inFIG. 5e , and weighed about 9.2 grams. This electrode was 99.95% puregold. The other electrode 5 a comprised a right-triangular shapedplatinum plate measuring about 14 mm×23 mm×27 mm and about 1 mm thickand having about 9 mm submerged in the liquid 3′. All other pertinentrun conditions are shown in Table 5 .

As shown in FIGS. 20c -h, the output from the trough member 30 a′ wasthe conditioned liquid 3′ and this conditioned liquid 3′ flowed directlyinto a second trough member 30 b′. The second trough member 30 b′, shownin FIGS. 21b-g and 22b had measurements as reported in Table 5 . Thistrough member 30 b′ contained from about 600 ml of liquid 3″ therein toabout 1100 ml depending on the dimensions of the trough and the depth“d″” of the liquid 3″ therein. Table 5 , in connection with FIGS. 20c-h, 21 b-g and 22 b, show a variety of different electrodeconfigurations. For example, previous examples herein disclosed the useof four sets of electrodes 5/5, with one electrode set 1/5. In thisExample, either eight or nine electrode sets were used (e.g., one 1/5set with seven or eight 5/5′ sets; or two 1/5 sets with seven 5/5′sets). Each of the electrode sets 5/5′ comprised 99.99% pure gold wiremeasuring either about 0.5 mm in diameter or 1.0 mm in diameter, asreported in Table 5. The length of each wire electrode 5 that was incontact with the liquid 3″ (reported as “WL” in Table 5) measured fromabout 0.5 inches (about 13 mm) long to about 2.0 inches (about 51 mm)long. Two different electrode set configurations 5/5′ were utilized.FIGS. 21b, 21c, 21e, 21f, 21g and 22b all show electrode sets 5/5′oriented along a plane (e.g., arranged in line form along the flowdirection of the liquid 3″). Whereas FIG. 21d shows that the electrodesets 5/5′ were rotated about 90° relative to the aforementionedelectrode sets 5/5′. Further, the embodiments shown in FIGS. 20a-20hshow the electrode sets 1/5 and 5/5′ were all located along the sameplane. However, it should be understood that the imaginary plane createdbetween the electrodes in each electrode set 1/5 and/or 5/5′ can beparallel to the flow direction of the liquid 3″ or perpendicular to theflow direction of the liquid 3″ or at an angle relative to the flowdirection of the liquid 3.″

With regard to FIGS. 20c -h, 21 b-g and 22 b, each separate electrodeset 5/5′ (e.g., Set 2, Set 3-Set 8 or Set 9) were electrically connectedto the transformer devices, 50 and 50 a, as shown therein. Specifically,transformers 50 and 50 a were electrically connected to each electrodeset, according to the wiring diagram show in FIGS. 20c -h. The exactwiring varied between examples and reference should be made to the FIGS.20c-20g for specific electrical connection information. In most cases,each transformer device 50, 50 a was connected to a separate AC inputline that was 120° out of phase relative to each other. The transformers50 and 50 a were electrically connected in a manner so as not tooverload a single electrical circuit and cause, for example, an upstreamcircuit breaker to disengage (e.g., when utilized under theseconditions, a single transformer 50/50 a could draw sufficient currentto cause upstream electrical problems). Each transformer 50/50 a was avariable AC transformer constructed of a single coil/winding of wire.This winding acts as part of both the primary and secondary winding. Theinput voltage is applied across a fixed portion of the winding. Theoutput voltage is taken between one end of the winding and anotherconnection along the winding. By exposing part of the winding and makingthe secondary connection using a sliding brush, a continuously variableratio can be obtained. The ratio of output to input voltages is equal tothe ratio of the number of turns of the winding they connect to.Specifically, each transformer was a Mastech TDGC2-5kVA, 10A VoltageRegulator, Output 0-250V.

Table 5 refers to each of the electrode sets by “Set #” (e.g., “Set 1”through “Set 9”). Each electrode of the 1/5 or 5/5 electrode sets wasset to operate within a specific voltage range. The voltages listed inTable 5 are the voltages used for each electrode set. The distance “c-c”(with reference to FIG. 14) from the centerline of each electrode set tothe adjacent electrode set is also reported. Further, the distance “x”associated with each electrode 1 utilized is also reported. For theelectrode 5, no distance “x” is reported. Sample GB-118 had a slightlydifferent electrode 5 a/ 5 b arrangement from the other examples herein.Specifically, tips or ends 5 t and 5 t′ of the electrodes 5 a/5 b,respectively, were located closer to each other than other portions ofthe electrodes 5 a/5 b. The distance “dt” between the tips 5 t and 5 t′varied between about 7/16 inches (about 1.2 cm) and about 2 inches(about 5 cm). Other relevant parameters are also reported in Table 5.

All materials for the electrodes 1/5 were obtained from ESPI, having anaddress of 1050 Benson Way, Ashland, Oreg. 97520. All materials for theelectrodes 5/5 in runs GB-139, GB-141, GB-144, GB-076, GB-077, GB-079,GB-089, GB-098, GB-113, GB-118, GB-120 and GB-123 were obtained fromAlfa Aesar, having an address of 26 Parkridge Road, Ward Hill, Mass.01835. All materials for the electrodes 5/5 in run GB-062 were obtainedfrom ESPI, 1050 Benson Way, Ashland, Oreg. 97520.

FIGS. 49a-61a show two representative TEM photomicrographs for each ofthe gold nanocrystals, dried from each suspension or colloid referencedin Table 5, and formed according to Example 16.

FIGS. 49b-61b show the measured size distribution of the goldnanocrystals measured by using the TEM instrument/software discussedearlier in Examples 5-7 for each dried solution or colloid referenced inTable 5 and formed according to Example 16.

FIGS. 49c-61c show graphically dynamic light scattering data measurementsets for the nanocrystals (i.e., the hydrodynamic radii) made accordingto each suspension or colloid referenced in Table 5 and formed accordingto Example 16. It should be noted that the dynamic light scatteringparticle size information is different from the TEM measured histogramsbecause dynamic light scattering uses algorithms that assume theparticles are all spheres (which they are not) as well as measures thehydrodynamic radius (e.g., the particle's influence on the water is alsodetected and reported in addition to the actual physical radii of theparticles). Accordingly, it is not surprising that there is a differencein the reported particle sizes between those reported in the TEMhistogram data of those reported in the dynamic light scattering datajust as in the other Examples included herein.

Reference is now made to FIGS. 20c, 20h, 21e, 21f and 20g which arerepresentative of structures that were used to make samples GB-139,GB-141 and GB-144. The trough member 30 b′ used to make these sampleswas different from the other trough members 30 b′ used this Example 16because: 1) the eight electrode sets 1/5 and 5/5 were all connected tocontrol devices 20 and 20 a-20 g (i.e., see FIG. 20h ) whichautomatically adjusted the height of, for example, each electrode 1/5 or5/5 in each electrode set 1/5; and 2) female receiver tubes o5 a/o5a′-o5 g/o5 g′ which were connected to a bottom portion of the troughmember 30 b′ such that the electrodes in each electrode set 5/5 could beremovably inserted into each female receiver tube o5 when, and if,desired. Each female receiver tube o5 was made of polycarbonate and hadan inside diameter of about ⅛ inch (about 3.2 mm) and was fixed in placeby a solvent adhesive to the bottom portion of the trough member 30 b′.Holes in the bottom of the trough member 30 b′ permitted the outsidediameter of each tube o5 to be fixed therein such that one end of thetube o5 was flush with the surface of the bottom portion of the trough30 b′. The inside diameters of the tubes o5 effectively prevented anysignificant quantities of liquid 3″ from entering into the femalereceiver tube o5. However, some liquid may flow into the inside of oneor more of the female receiver tubes o5. The length or vertical heightof each female receiver tube o5 used in this Example was about 6 inches(about 15.24 cm) however, shorter or longer lengths fall within themetes and bounds of this disclosure. Further, while the female receivertubes o5 are shown as being subsequently straight, such tubes could becurved in a J-shaped or U-shaped manner such that their openings awayfrom the trough member 30 b′ could be above the top surface of theliquid 3,″ if desired.

With reference to FIGS. 21e, f and g, each electrode 5/5′ was firstplaced into contact with the liquid 3″ such that it just entered thefemale receiver tube o5. After a certain amount of process time, goldmetal was removed from each wire electrode 5 which caused the electrode5 to thin (i.e., become smaller in diameter) which changed, for example,current density and/or the rate at which gold nanoparticles were formed.Accordingly, the electrodes 5 were moved toward the female receivertubes o5 resulting in fresh and thicker electrodes 5 entering the liquid3″ at a top surface portion thereof. In essence, an erosion profile ortapering effect was formed on the electrodes 5 after some amount ofprocessing time has passed (i.e., portions of the wire near the surfaceof the liquid 3″ were typically thicker than portions near the femalereceiver tubes o5), and such wire electrode profile or tapering canremain essentially constant throughout a production process, if desired,resulting in essentially identical product being produced at any pointin time after an initial pre-equilibrium phase during a production runallowing, for example, the process to be cGMP under current FDAguidelines and/or be ISO 9000 compliant as well.

The movement of the electrodes 5 into the female receiver tubes o5 canoccur by monitoring a variety of specific process parameters whichchange as a function of time (e.g., current, amps, nanocrystalsconcentration, optical density or color, conductivity, pH, etc.) or canbe moved a predetermined amount at various time intervals to result in afixed movement rate, whichever may be more convenient under the totalityof the processing circumstances. In this regard, FIGS. 54d, 55d and 56dshow that current was monitored/controlled as a function of time foreach of the 16 electrodes used to make samples GB-139, GB-141 andGB-144, respectively, causing a vertical movement of the electrodes 5into the female receiver tubes o5. Under these processing conditions,each electrode 5 was moved at a rate of about ¾ inch every 8 hours(about 2.4 mm/hour) to maintain the currents reported in FIGS. 54d, 55dand 56d . FIGS. 55d and 56d show a typical ramp-up or pre-equilibriumphase where the current starts around 0.2-0.4 amps and increases toabout 0.4-0.75 after about 20-30 minutes. Samples were collected onlyfrom the equilibrium phase. The pre-equilibrium phase occurs because,for example, the concentration of nanocrystals produced in the liquid 3″increases as a function of time until the concentration reachesequilibrium conditions (e.g., substantially constant nucleation andgrowth conditions within the apparatus), which equilibrium conditionsremain substantially constant through the remainder of the processingdue to the control processes disclosed herein.

Energy absorption spectra were obtained for the samples in Example 16 byusing UV-VIS spectroscopy. This information was acquired using a dualbeam scanning monochromator system capable of scanning the wavelengthrange of 190 nm to 1100 nm. The Jasco V-530 UV-Vis spectrometer was usedto collect absorption spectroscopy. Instrumentation was setup to supportmeasurement of low-concentration liquid samples using one of a number offused-quartz sample holders or “cuvettes”. The various cuvettes allowdata to be collected at 10 mm, 1 mm or 0.1 mm optic path of sample. Datawas acquired over the wavelength range using between 250-900 nm detectorwith the following parameters; bandwidth of 2 nm, with data pitch of 0.5nm, a silicon photodiode with a water baseline background. Bothdeuterium (D2) and halogen (WI) scan speed of 400 nm/mm sources wereused as the primary energy sources. Optical paths of these spectrometerswere setup to allow the energy beam to pass through the center of thesample cuvette. Sample preparation was limited to filling and cappingthe cuvettes and then physically placing the samples into the cuvetteholder, within the fully enclosed sample compartment. Optical absorptionof energy by the materials of interest was determined. Data output wasmeasured and displayed as Absorbance Units (per Beer-Lambert's Law)versus wavelength.

Spectral patterns in a UV-Visible range were obtained for each of thesolutions/colloids produced in Example 16.

Specifically, FIG. 61d shows UV-Vis spectral patterns of each of the 14suspensions/colloids, (GB-134) (GB-098, GB-113 and GB-118); (GB-120 andGB-123); (GB-139); (GB-141 and GB-144); (GB-079, GB-089 and GB-062); and(GB-076 and GB-077) within a wavelength range of about 250 nm-750 nm.

FIG. 61e shows the UV-Vis spectral pattern for each of the 14suspensions/colloids over a wavelength range of about 435 nm-635 nm.

In general, UV-Vis spectroscopy is the measurement of the wavelength andintensity of absorption of near-ultraviolet and visible light by asample. Ultraviolet and visible light are energetic enough to promoteouter electrons to higher energy levels. UV-Vis spectroscopy can beapplied to molecules and inorganic ions or complexes in solution orsuspension.

The UV-Vis spectra have broad features that can be used for sampleidentification but are also useful for quantitative measurements. Theconcentration of an analyte in solution can be determined by measuringthe absorbance at some wavelength and applying the Beer-Lambert Law.

EXAMPLE 17 Manufacturing Gold-Based Nanocrystals/Nanocrystal SuspensionGB-056

In general, Example 17 utilizes certain embodiments of the inventionassociated with the apparatuses generally shown in FIGS. 17a, 18a, 20band 22a . The trough members 30 a (30 a′) and 30 b were made from ¼″(about 6 mm) thick plexiglass, and ⅛″ (about 3 mm) thick polycarbonate,respectively. The support structure 34 was also made from plexiglasswhich was about ¼″ thick (about 6-7 mm thick). As shown in FIG. 20b ,the trough member 30 a was integrated with trough member 30 b′ and wasdesignated 30 a′ (e.g., no separate pumping means was provided aftertrough member 30 a, as in certain previous examples). Thecross-sectional shape of the trough member 30 a′ as shown in FIGS. 18aand 20b corresponds to that shape shown in FIG. 10b (i.e., a truncated“V”). The base portion “R” of the truncated “V” measured about 0.5″(about 1 cm), and each side portion “S”, “S′” measured about 1.5″ (about3.75 cm). The distance “M” separating the side portions “S”, “S′” of theV-shaped trough member 30 a was about 2¼″-2 5/16″ (about 5.9 cm)(measured from inside to inside). The thickness of each sidewall portionalso measured about ⅛″ (about 3 mm) thick. The longitudinal length “LT”(refer to FIG. 11a ) of the V-shaped trough member 30 a′ measured about1 foot (about 30 cm) long from point 31 to point 32.

Purified water (discussed elsewhere herein) was mixed with about 0.396g/L of NaHCO₃ and was used as the liquid 3 input into trough member 30a′. The depth “d” (refer to FIG. 10b ) of the liquid 3′ in the V-shapedtrough member 30 a′ was about 7/16″ to about ½″ (about 11 mm to about 13mm) at various points along the trough member 30 a′. The depth “d” waspartially controlled through use of the dam 80 (shown in FIG. 18a ).Specifically, the dam 80 was provided near the end 32 and assisted increating the depth “d” (shown in FIG. 10b ) to be about 7/6″-½″ (about11-13 mm) in depth. The height “j” of the dam 80 measured about ¼″(about 6 mm) and the longitudinal length “k” measured about ½″ (about 13mm). The width (not shown) was completely across the bottom dimension“R” of the trough member 30 a′. Accordingly, the total volume of liquid3′ in the V-shaped trough member 30 a′ during operation thereof wasabout 2.14 in³ (about 35 ml).

The rate of flow of the liquid 3′ into the trough member 30 a′ was about150 ml/minute and the rate of flow out of the trough member 30 b′ at thepoint 32 was about 110 ml/minute (i.e., due to evaporation). Such flowof liquid 3′ was obtained by utilizing a Masterflex® L/S pump drive 40rated at 0.1 horsepower, 10-600 rpm. The model number of the Masterflex®pump 40 was 77300-40. The pump drive had a pump head also made byMasterflex® known as Easy-Load Model No. 7518-10. In general terms, thehead for the pump 40 is known as a peristaltic head. The pump 40 andhead were controlled by a Masterflex® LS Digital Modular Drive. Themodel number for the Digital Modular Drive is 77300-80. The precisesettings on the Digital Modular Drive were, for example, 150 millilitersper minute. Tygon® tubing having a diameter of ¼″ (i.e., size 06419-25)was placed into the peristaltic head. The tubing was made by SaintGobain for Masterflex®. One end of the tubing was delivered to a firstend 31 of the trough member 30′a by a flow diffusion means locatedtherein. The flow diffusion means tended to minimize disturbance andbubbles in water 3 introduced into the trough member 30 a′ as well asany pulsing condition generated by the peristaltic pump 40. In thisregard, a small reservoir served as the diffusion means and was providedat a point vertically above the end 31 of the trough member 30 a′ suchthat when the reservoir overflowed, a relatively steady flow of liquid3′ into the end 31 of the V-shaped trough member 30 a′ occurred.

There was a single electrode set 1 a/5 a utilized in this Example 17.The plasma 4 was created with an electrode 1 similar in shape to thatshown in FIG. 5e , and weighed about 9.2 grams. This electrode was99.95% pure gold. The other electrode 5 a comprised a right-triangularshaped platinum plate measuring about 14 mm×23 mm×27 mm and about 1 mmthick and having about 9 mm submerged in the liquid 3′. All otherpertinent run conditions are shown in Table 10.

As shown in FIG. 20b , the output from the trough member 30 a′ was theconditioned liquid 3′ and this conditioned liquid 3′ flowed directlyinto a second trough member 30 b′. The second trough member 30 b′, shownin FIG. 22a measured about 3.75 inches high, about 3.75 inches wide atthe end 32 thereof, and about 1 inch wide at the end 31 thereof. Thistrough member 30 b′ contained about 1450 ml of liquid 3″ therein whichwas about 2.5 inches deep. In this Example, each of four electrode sets5 a, 5 a′-5 d, 5 d′ comprised 99.95% pure gold wire measuring about 0.5mm in diameter. The length of each wire 5 measured about 5 inches (about12 cm) long. The liquid 3″ was about 2.5 inches deep (about 6 cm) withabout 4.25 inches (about 11 cm) of the j-shaped wire being submergedtherein. Each electrode set 5 b, 5 b′-5 e, 5 e′ was shaped like a “J”,as shown in FIG. 17a . The distance “g” shown in FIG. 17a measured about1-8 mm.

With regard to FIGS. 20b and 22a , 4 separate electrode sets (Set 2, Set3, Set 4 and Set 5) were attached to 2 separate transformer devices, 50and 50 a as shown in FIG. 20b . Specifically, transformers 50 and 50 awere electrically connected to each electrode set, according to thewiring diagram show in FIG. 19a . Each transformer device 50, 50 a wasconnected to a separate AC input line that was 120° out of phaserelative to each other. The transformers 50 and 50 a were electricallyconnected in a manner so as not to overload a single electrical circuitand cause, for example, an upstream circuit breaker to disengage (e.g.,when utilized under these conditions, a single transformer 50/50 a coulddraw sufficient current to cause upstream electrical problems). Eachtransformer 50/50 a was a variable AC transformer constructed of asingle coil/winding of wire. This winding acts as part of both theprimary and secondary winding. The input voltage was applied across afixed portion of the winding. The output voltage was taken between oneend of the winding and another connection along the winding. By exposingpart of the winding and making the secondary connection using a slidingbrush, a continuously variable ratio was obtained. The ratio of outputto input voltages is equal to the ratio of the number of turns of thewinding they connect to. Specifically, each transformer was a MastechTDGC2-5kVA, 10A Voltage Regulator, Output 0-250V.

Table 6 refers to each of the 4 electrode sets by “Set #”. Eachelectrode of the 4 electrode sets was set to operate within a specificvoltage range. The actual voltages, listed in Table 10, were about 255volts. The distance “c-c” (with reference to FIG. 14) from thecenterline of each electrode set to the adjacent electrode set is alsorepresented. Further, the distance “x” associated with the electrode 1utilized is also reported. For the electrode 5, no distance “x” isreported. Other relevant parameters are reported in Table 6.

All materials for the electrodes 1/5 were obtained from ESPI having anaddress of 1050 Benson Way, Ashland, Oreg. 97520.

TABLE 6 0.396 mg/ml of NaHCO₃ (Au) Run ID: GB-056 Flow Rate: 150 ml/minVoltage: 255 V NaHCO₃: 0.396 mg/ml Wire Dia.: .5 mm Configuration: J/JPPM: 12 Distance Distance Electrode “c-c” “x” cross Set # # in/mm in/mmVoltage section  4.5/114.3* 1 1a 0.25/6.35 750 V 5a N/A 750   23/584.2**2.5/63.5* 2 5b N/A 255  5b′ N/A 3.5/88.9 3 5c N/A 255 Tapered  5c′ N/A3″Deep 3.5/88.9 4 5d N/A 255  5d′ N/A 3.5/88.9 5 5e N/A 255  5e′ N/A376.2** Output 98 C. Water Temperature *Distance from water inlet tocenter of first electrode set **Distance from center of last electrodeset to water outlet

FIGS. 100a-e show five representative TEM photomicrographs of the goldnanocrystals, dried from the solution/colloid GB-056, formed accordingto Example 16.

FIG. 101a shows the measured size distribution of the gold nanocrystalsdried from the suspension/colloid measured by using the TEMinstrument/software discussed earlier in Examples 5-7.

FIG. 101b shows graphically three dynamic light scattering datameasurement sets for the nanocrystals (i.e., the hydrodynamic radii)made according to this Example 17. It should be noted that the dynamiclight scattering particle size information is different from the TEMmeasured histograms because dynamic light scattering uses algorithmsthat assume the nanocrystals are all spheres (which they are not) aswell as measures the hydrodynamic radius (e.g., the nanocrystal'sinfluence on the water is also detected and reported in addition to theactual physical radii of the nanocrystals). Accordingly, it is notsurprising that there is a difference in the reported nanocrystal sizesbetween those reported in the TEM histogram data of those reported inthe dynamic light scattering data just as in the other Examples includedherein.

FIGS. 102a-102d show additional representative TEM photomicrographs ofthe same suspension/colloid GB-056 made according to Example 17,however, this suspension/colloid was exposed to the mice via their waterbottles in Treatment Group B discussed in Example 26. It should be notedthat these representative TEM nanocrystal images are of the driedsolution GB-056 so certain drying conditions can affect the images. Itis clear that some clustering together of the gold nanocrystalsoccurred, for example, during drying. However, FIG. 103a showsnanocrystal size distributions which are substantially similar to thosethat are shown in FIG. 101a . In this regard, the data shown in FIGS.102 and 103 correspond to suspensions that were in the mouse drinkingbottles for a 24-hour time period between day 2 and day 3 of the Example26 EAE study. Of interest, is the comparison of FIG. 103b to FIG. 101b .In this regard, the dynamic light scattering data has changed.Specifically, the largest hydrodynamic radius shown in FIG. 101b isabout 16.8 nm, whereas in FIG. 103b , it is about 20.2 nm. Clearly, thedynamic light scattering data is recognizing some type of the clusteringof nanocrystals in suspension which is also represented by the driedsuspension/gold nanocrystal TEM photomicrographs shown in FIGS. 102a-102 d.

Likewise, FIGS. 104a -104 c; FIG. 105a ; and FIG. 105c all correspond tosuspension/colloid GB-056 that was in the drinking bottles for a 24-hourtime period between day 4 and day 5 of the EAE study discussed inExample 26. Once again, it is evident that some type of clumpingtogether of the nanocrystals was occurring.

While FIGS. 101a, 103a and 105a are all substantially similar for TEMmeasured nanocrystal sizes, it is clear that the dynamic lightscattering radii (e.g., the hydrodynamic radii) of the nanocrystals hasenlarged, as shown in FIG. 105b , just as it enlarged in FIG. 103b ,both relative to the smaller hydrodynamic radii reported in FIG. 101 b.

Taken together, these data suggest that exposure of the inventivecompositions disclosed herein to certain constituents in, for example,mouse saliva, can cause a clustering or clumping together of thenanocrystals suspended in the liquid. Accordingly, prolonged exposure tocertain proteins may have a “denaturing” effect on these inventivecompositions. This “denaturing” effect is manageable, and withoutwishing to be bound by any particular theory or explanation, may be verydesirable in that such reactivity due to very “clean” surfaces maysupport desirable in vivo activity (e.g., certain protein-bindingmechanisms).

EXAMPLE 18 Manufacturing Gold-Based Nanocrystals/Nanocrystal Suspensions(GB-151, GB-188, GB-175, GB-177, GB-176, GB-189, GB-194, GB-195, GB-196,GB-198 and GB-199)

In general, this Example utilizes certain embodiments of the inventionassociated with the apparatuses generally shown in FIGS. 18a and 21d .Control devices 20 (not shown in FIG. 21d ) were connected to theelectrodes 1/5 and 5/5, however, due to the short run times in each “RunID,” there was no need to actuate the control devices 20. Accordingly,in reference to FIGS. 3c and 9c , the ends 9′ of the electrodes 5 a and5 b were juxtaposed with the bottom of the trough member 30 b′.Additionally, Table 7 summarizes key processing parameters used inconjunction with FIGS. 18a and 21d . Also, Table 7 discloses: 1)resultant “ppm” (i.e., gold nanocrystal concentrations) and 2) “TEMAverage Diameter” which is the mode, corresponding to the crystaldiameter that occurs most frequently, determined by the TEM histogramsshown in FIGS. 62b -72 b. These physical characterizations wereperformed as discussed elsewhere herein.

TABLE 7 Run ID: GB-151 GB-188 GB-175 GB-177 GB-176 Flow In (ml/min) 220230 230 230 230 Rate: Out (ml/min) 175 184 184 184 184 Volts: Set # 1750 750 750 750 n/a Set #'s 2-8 230 198 210 208 210 PE: NaHCO3 (mg/ml)0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 Wire Diameter (mm) 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.1 3.0 Contact“W_(L)” (in/mm) 1/25 1/25 1/25 1/25 1/25 Electrode Separation “y”(in/mm) .25/6.4  .25/6.4  .25/6.4  .25/6.4  .25/6.4  Electrode Config.FIG. 17b  17b  17b  17b  17b  Produced Au PPM 8.3 8.4 10.5 9.5 10.1Output Temp ° C. at 32 89 84 89 88 86 Dimensions Plasma 4 FIGS. 18a 18a  18a  18a  n/a Process FIGS. 21d  21d  21d  21d  21d  M1 (in/mm)2/51 1.5/38   1.5/38   1.5/38   1.5/38   L_(T) (in/mm) 30/762 36/91436/914 36/914 36/914 d (in/mm) 1/25 1/25 1/25 1/25 1/25 S (in/mm)1.5/38   1.5/38   2/51 2/51 2/51 Electrode Curr. (A) 0.89 .85 .93 .80.88 Total Curr. Draw (A) n/m 6.06 7.02 6.84 6.82 Hydrodynamic r (nm)11.6 12 14 13.1 13.2 TEM Avg. Dia. (nm) 10.85 10.63 11.76 10.85 10.42“c-c” (mm) 152 76 76 76 n/a Set electrode # 1a 1a 1a 1a n/a 1 “x”(in/mm) 0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4  n/a electrode # 5a 5a 5a5a n/a “c-c” (mm) 63 102 102 102 102 Set electrode # 5b 5b 5b 5b 5b 2“x” (in/mm) n/a  n/a n/a n/a n/a electrode #  5b′  5b′  5b′  5b′  5b′“c-c” (mm) 76 76 76 76 76 Set electrode # 5c 5c 5c 5c 5c 3 electrode #5c′ 5c′ 5c′ 5c′ 5c′ “c-c” (mm) 76 76 76 76 76 Set electrode # 5d 5d 5d5d 5d 4 electrode #  5d′  5d′  5d′  5d′  5d′ “c-c” (mm) 114 127 127 127127 Set electrode # 5e 5e 5e 5e 5e 5 electrode # 5e′ 5e′ 5e′ 5e′ 5e′“c-c” (mm) 114 127 127 127 127 Set electrode # 5f  5f  5f  5f  5f  6electrode # 5f′ 5f′ 5f′ 5f′ 5f′ “c-c” (mm) 114 152 152 152 152 Setelectrode # 5g 5g 5g 5g 5g 7 electrode #  5g′  5g′  5g′  5g′  5g′ “c-c”(mm) 127 178 178 178 178 Set electrode # 5h 5h 5h 5h 5h 8 electrode # 5h′  5h′  5h′  5h′  5h′ “c-c” (mm) 76 76 76 76 76 Run ID: GB-189 GB-194GB-195 GB-196 GB-198 GB-199 Flow In (ml/min) 230 250 250 250 150 150Rate: Out (ml/min) 184 200 200 200 120 120 Volts: Set # 1 750 750 750750 n/a 750 Set #'s 2-8 208 210 210 210 205 205 PE: NaHCO3 (mg/ml) 0.530.53 0.53 0.53 0.26 0.26 Wire Diameter (mm) 1.2 4.0 1.3 5.0 1.4 6.0Contact “W_(L)” (in/mm) 1/25 1/25 1/25 1/25 1/25 1/25 ElectrodeSeparation “y” (in/mm) .25/6.4  .25/6.4  .25/6.4  .25/6.4  .125/3.18 .125/3.18  Electrode Config. FIG. 17b  17b  17b  17b  17b  17b  ProducedAu PPM 8.4 8.7 7.7 8.7 9.9 12.4 Output Temp ° C. at 32 85 93 96 89 74 80Dimensions Plasma 4 FIGS. 18a  18a  18a  18a  n/a 18a  Process FIGS.21d  21d  21d  21d  21d  21d  M1 (in/mm) 1.5/38   .75/19   .5/13  1/251.5/38   1.5/38   L_(T) (in/mm) 36/914 36/914 36/914 36/914 36/91436/914 d (in/mm) 1/25 1/25 1/25 1/25 .75/19   .75/19   S (in/mm) 2/512/51 2/51 1.5/38  2/51 2/51 Electrode Curr. (A) .91 n/m n/m n/m  n/m n/mTotal Curr. Draw (A) 6.36 6.25 5.59 5.93 3.57 3.71 Hydrodynamic r (nm)12 16 16 12.5 13.9 14.2 TEM Avg. Dia. (nm) 10.42 12.06 11.11 12.06 11.7413.02 “c-c” (mm) 76 76 76 76 n/a 76 Set electrode # 1a 1a 1a 1a n/a 1a 1“x” (in/mm) 0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4  n/a 0.25/6.4 electrode # 5a 5a 5a 5a n/a 5a “c-c” (mm) 102 102 102 102 102 102 Setelectrode # 5b 5b 5b 5b 5b 5b 2 “x” (in/mm) n/a n/a  n/a  n/a  n/a n/a electrode #  5b′  5b′  5b′  5b′  5b′  5b′ “c-c” (mm) 76 76 76 76 76 76Set electrode # 5c 5c 5c 5c 5c 5c 3 electrode # 5c′ 5c′ 5c′ 5c′ 5c′ 5c′“c-c” (mm) 76 76 76 76 76 76 Set electrode # 5d 5d 5d 5d 5d 5d 4electrode #  5d′  5d′  5d′  5d′  5d′  5d′ “c-c” (mm) 127 127 127 127 127127 Set electrode # 5e 5e 5e 5e 5e 5e 5 electrode # 5e′ 5e′ 5e′ 5e′ 5e′5e′ “c-c” (mm) 127 127 127 127 127 127 Set electrode # 5f  5f  5f  5f 5f  5f  6 electrode # 5f′ 5f′ 5f′ 5f′ 5f′ 5f′ “c-c” (mm) 152 152 152 152152 152 Set electrode # 5g 5g 5g 5g 5g 5g 7 electrode #  5g′  5g′  g′ 5g′  5g′  5g′ “c-c” (mm) 178 178 178 178 178 178 Set electrode # 5h 5h5h 5h 5h 5h 8 electrode #  5h′  5h′  5h′  5h′  5h′  5h′ “c-c” (mm) 76 7676 76 76 76

All trough members 30 a′ and 30b′ in the aforementioned FIGS. 18a and21d were made from ⅛″ (about 3 mm) thick plexiglass, and ¼″ (about 6 mm)thick polycarbonate, respectively. The support structure 34 (not shownin the Figures but discussed elsewhere herein) was also made fromplexiglass which was about ¼″ thick (about 6-7 mm thick). In contrast tothe embodiments shown in FIGS. 19a and 19b , each trough member 30 a wasintegral with trough member 30 b′ and was thus designated 30 a′ (e.g.,no separate pumping means was provided after trough member 30 a, as incertain previous examples). The cross-sectional shape of each troughmember 30 a′ used in this Example corresponded to that shape shown inFIG. 10b (i.e., was a trapezoidal-shaped cross-section). Relevantdimensions for each trough member portion 30 b′ are reported in Table 7as “M1” (i.e., the inside width of the trough at the entrance portion ofthe trough member 30 b′) was the same as the inside width of the troughat the exit portion of the trough member 30 b′), “LT” (i.e., transverselength or flow length of the trough member 30 b′), “S” (i.e., the heightof the trough member 30 b′), and “d” (i.e., depth of the liquid 3″within the trough member 30 b′). The thickness of each sidewall portionalso measured about ¼″ (about 6 mm) thick. Two different longitudinallengths “LT” are reported for the trough members 30 b′ (i.e., either 762mm or 914 mm) however, other lengths LT should be considered to bewithin the metes and bounds of the inventive trough.

Table 7 shows that the processing enhancer NaHCO₃ was added to purifiedwater (discussed elsewhere herein) in amounts of either about 0.26 mg/mlor 0.53 mg/ml. It should be understood that other amounts of thisprocessing enhancer (and other processing enhancers) also functionwithin the metes and bounds of the invention. The purified water/NaHCO₃mixture was used as the liquid 3 input into trough member 30 a′. Thedepth “d” of the liquid 3′ in the trough member 30 a′ (i.e., where theplasma(s) 4 is/are formed) was about 7/16″ to about ½″ (about 11 mm toabout 13 mm) at various points along the trough member 30 a′. The depth“d′” was partially controlled through use of the dam 80 (shown in FIGS.18a and 18b ). Specifically, the dam 80 was provided near the output end32 of the trough member 30 a′ and assisted in creating the depth “d”(shown in FIG. 10b as “d”) to be about 7/6″-½″ (about 11-13 mm) indepth. The height “j” of the dam 80 measured about ¼″ (about 6 mm) andthe longitudinal length “k” measured about ½″ (about 13 mm). The width(not shown) was completely across the bottom dimension “R” of the troughmember 30 a′. Accordingly, the total volume of liquid 3′ in the troughmember 30 a′ during operation thereof was about 2.14 in³ (about 35 ml)to about 0.89 in³ (about 14.58 ml).

The rate of flow of the liquid 3′ into the trough member 30 a′ as wellas into trough member 30 b′, varied (as shown in Table 7) and the rateof flow out of the trough member 30 b′ at the point 32 also varied dueto different flow rate inputs and evaporation. Other acceptable flowrates should be considered to be within the metes and bounds of theinvention.

Such flow of liquid 3′ was obtained by utilizing a Masterflex® L/S pumpdrive 40 rated at 0.1 horsepower, 10-600 rpm. The model number of theMasterflex® pump 40 was 77300-40. The pump drive had a pump head alsomade by Masterflex® known as Easy-Load Model No. 7518-10. In generalterms, the head for the pump 40 is known as a peristaltic head. The pump40 and head were controlled by a Masterflex® LS Digital Modular Drive.The model number for the Digital Modular Drive is 77300-80. The precisesettings on the Digital Modular Drive were, for example, 150 millilitersper minute for all samples except GB-144 which was, for example, 110ml/minute. Tygon® tubing having a diameter of ¼″ (i.e., size 06419-25)was placed into the peristaltic head. The tubing was made by SaintGobain for Masterflex®. One end of the tubing was delivered to a firstend 31 of the trough member 30′a by a flow diffusion means locatedtherein. The flow diffusion means tended to minimize disturbance andbubbles in water 3 introduced into the trough member 30 a′ as well asany pulsing condition generated by the peristaltic pump 40. In thisregard, a small reservoir served as the diffusion means and was providedat a point vertically above the end 31 of the trough member 30 a′ suchthat when the reservoir overflowed, a relatively steady flow of liquid3′ into the end 31 of the V-shaped trough member 30 a′ occurred.

Table 7 shows that there was a single electrode set la/5a, utilized inthis Example 18. The plasma(s) 4 was/were created with an electrode 1similar in shape to that shown in FIG. 5e , and weighed about 9.2 grams.This electrode was 99.95% pure gold. The other electrode 5 a comprised a99.95% 1 mm gold wire submerged in the liquid 3′. All other pertinentrun conditions are shown in Table 7.

The output from the trough member 30 a′ was the conditioned liquid 3′and this conditioned liquid 3′ flowed directly into a second troughmember 30 b′. The second trough member 30 b′, shown in FIGS. 21d hadmeasurements as reported in Table 7. This trough member 30 b′ containedfrom about 260 ml of liquid 3″ therein to about 980 ml depending on thedimensions of the trough and the depth “d″” of the liquid 3″ therein.Table 7, in connection with FIG. 21d the electrode configurations used.For example, previous examples herein disclosed the use of four sets ofelectrodes 5/5, with one electrode set 1/5. In this Example, eightelectrode sets were used (e.g., one 1/5 set with seven or eight 5/5′sets). Each of the electrode sets 5/5′ comprised 99.99% pure gold wiremeasuring either about 0.5 mm in diameter or 1.0 mm in diameter, asreported in Table 7. The length of each wire electrode 5 that was incontact with the liquid 3″ (reported as “WL” in Table 7) measured fromabout 0.75 inches (about 19 mm) long to about 1 inch (about 25 mm) long.FIG. 21d shows that the electrode sets 5/5′ were arranged as shown inFIG. 5 c.

Each electrode set 5 a/5 b was connected to a Chroma 61604 programmed ACpower source (not shown and as discussed elsewhere herein). The appliedvoltages are reported in Table 7. Specifically, Table 7 refers to eachof the electrode sets by “Set #” (e.g., “Set 1” through “Set 8”).

Each electrode of the 1/5 or 5/5 electrode sets was set to operatewithin a specific voltage range. The voltages listed in Table 7 are thevoltages used for each electrode set. The distance “c-c” (with referenceto FIG. 14) from the centerline of each electrode set to the adjacentelectrode set is also reported. Further, the distance “x” (e.g., seeFIG. 2a ) associated with each electrode 1 utilized is also reported.Other relevant parameters are also reported in Table 7.

All materials for the electrodes 1/5 were obtained from Hi-Rel Alloyshaving an address of 23 Lewis Street, Fort Erie, Ontario L2A2P6, Canada.

FIGS. 62a-72a show two representative TEM photomicrographs for each ofthe gold nanoparticles, dried from each solution or colloid referencedin Table 7, and formed according to Example 18.

FIGS. 62b-72b show the measured size distribution of the gold particlesmeasured by using the TEM instrument/software discussed earlier inExamples 5-7 for each dried solution or colloid referenced in Table 7and formed according to Example 18.

Energy absorption spectra were obtained for the samples in Example 18 byusing UV-VIS spectroscopy. This information was acquired using a dualbeam scanning monochromator system capable of scanning the wavelengthrange of 190 nm to 1100 nm. The Jasco V-530 UV-Vis spectrometer was usedto collect absorption spectroscopy. Instrumentation was setup to supportmeasurement of low-concentration liquid samples using one of a number offused-quartz sample holders or “cuvettes.” The various cuvettes allowdata to be collected at 10 mm, 1 mm or 0.1 mm optic path of sample. Datawas acquired over the wavelength range using between 250-900 nm detectorwith the following parameters; bandwidth of 2 nm, with data pitch of 0.5nm, a silicon photodiode with a water baseline background. Bothdeuterium (D2) and halogen (WI) scan speed of 400 nm/mm sources wereused as the primary energy sources. Optical paths of these spectrometerswere setup to allow the energy beam to pass through the center of thesample cuvette. Sample preparation was limited to filling and cappingthe cuvettes and then physically placing the samples into the cuvetteholder, within the fully enclosed sample compartment. Optical absorptionof energy by the materials of interest was determined. Data output wasmeasured and displayed as Absorbance Units (per Beer-Lambert's Law)versus wavelength.

Spectral patterns in a UV-Visible range were obtained for each of thesolutions/colloids produced in Example 18.

Specifically, FIG. 72c shows UV-Vis spectral patterns of each of the 11suspensions/colloids, (GB-151, GB-188, GB-175, GB-177, GB-176, GB-189,GB-194, GB-195, GB-196, GB-198 and GB-199) within a wavelength range ofabout 250 nm-750 nm.

FIG. 72d shows the UV-Vis spectral pattern for each of the 11suspensions/colloids over a wavelength range of about 435 nm-635 nm.

In general, UV-Vis spectroscopy is the measurement of the wavelength andintensity of absorption of near-ultraviolet and visible light by asample. Ultraviolet and visible light are energetic enough to promoteouter electrons to higher energy levels. UV-Vis spectroscopy can beapplied to molecules and inorganic ions or complexes in solution.

The UV-Vis spectra have broad features that can be used for sampleidentification but are also useful for quantitative measurements. Theconcentration of an analyte in solution can be determined by measuringthe absorbance at some wavelength and applying the Beer-Lambert Law.

EXAMPLE 19 Manufacturing Gold-Based Nanoparticles/NanoparticleSuspensions or Colloids Aurora-002, Aurora-004, Aurora-006, Aurora-007,Aurora-009, Aurora-011, Aurora-012, Aurora-013, Aurora-014, Aurora-016,Aurora-017, Aurora-019, Aurora-020, Aurora-021, Aurora-022, Aurora-023,Aurora-024, Aurora-025, Aurora-026, Aurora-027, Aurora-028, Aurora-029and Aurora-030

In general, Example 19 utilizes a trough member 30 and electrode 1/5combination different from any of the other Examples disclosed herein.Specifically, this Example utilizes a first set of four electrodes 1 anda single electrode 5 a in a trough member 30 a′ which create a pluralityof plasmas 4, resulting in conditioned liquid 3′. The conditioned liquid3′ flows into and through a longitudinal trough member 30 b′, whereinparallelly located electrodes 5 b/5 b′ are positioned alongsubstantially the entire longitudinal or flow length of the troughmember 30 b′. Specific reference is made to FIGS. 23a, 23b, 23c and 23dwhich show various schematic and perspective views of this embodiment ofthe invention. Additionally, Table 8 contains relevant processingparameters associated with this embodiment of the invention.

TABLE 8 Aurora- Aurora- Aurora- Aurora- Aurora- Run ID: 002 004 006 007009 Flow Rate: In (ml/min) 300 300 150 150 150 Volts: Set # 1 1000 10001000 1000 1000 Electrodes 5b 100 120 100 50 100 # of Electrodes 1 4 4 44 4 PE: NaHCO3 (mg/ml) 0.396 0.396 0.396 0.396 0.396 Wire Diameter (mm)0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Electrode Config. FIG. 23a 23a 23a 23a 23a ProducedAu PPM 12.3 15.9 39.6 4.1 17.8 Dimensions Plasma 4 FIGS. 23a 23a 23a 23a23a Process FIGS. 23a, 23b, 23a, 23b, 23a, 23b, 23a, 23b, 23a, 23b, 23c,23d 23c, 23d 23c, 23d 23c, 23d 23c, 23d Wire Length (in) 54 54 54 54 54“W_(L)” L_(T) (in/mm)  59/1500    59/1500  59/1500  59/1500  59/1500wire apart 0.125/3.2  0.125/3.2  0.125/3.2  0.125/3.2  0.125/3.2 (in/mm) “b” Electrode Curr. (A) 10.03 14.2 15.3 5.2 11.9 Hydrodynamic r(nm) 23.2 19.4 23.2 26.2 19.6 TEM Avg. Dia. (nm) n/a n/a n/a n/a n/aAurora- Aurora- Aurora- Aurora- Run ID: 011 012 013 014 Flow Rate: In(ml/min) 300 450 60 60 Volts: Set # 1 1000 1000 1000 1000 Electrodes 5b90 110 50 40 # of Electrodes 1 4 4 4 4 PE: NaHCO3 (mg/ml) 0.396 0.3960.396 0.396 Wire Diameter (mm) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Electrode Config. FIG.23a 23a 23a 23a Produced Au PPM 17.4 12.7 46.5 65.7 Dimensions Plasma 4FIGS. 23a 23a 23a 23a Process FIGS. 23a, 23b, 23a, 23b, 23a, 23b, 23a,23b, 23c, 23d 23c, 23d 23c, 23d 23c, 23d Wire Length (in) 54 54 54 54“W_(L)” L_(T) (in/mm)  59/1500  59/1500  59/1500  59/1500 wire apart0.063/1.6  0.063/1.6  0.063/1.6  0.063/1.6  (in/mm) “b” Electrode Curr.(A) 15.9 19.5 10 7.87 Hydrodynamic r (nm) 16.3 13.1 26.2 22.0 TEM Avg.Dia. (nm) n/a n/a n/a n/a Aurora- Aurora- Aurora- Aurora- Aurora- RunID: 016 017 019 020 021 Flow Rate: In (ml/min) 60 30 30 30 30 Volts: Set# 1 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 Electrodes 5b 30 30 30 50 50 # ofElectrodes 1 4 4 1 1 4 PE: NaHCO3 (mg/ml) 0.396 0.396 0.396 0.396 0.396Wire Diameter (mm) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Electrode Config. FIG. 23a 23a23a 23a 23a Produced Au PPM 35.5 24.8 22.5 128.2 67.1 Dimensions Plasma4 FIGS. 23a 23a 23a 23a 23a Process FIGS. 23a, 23b, 23a, 23b, 23a, 23b,23a, 23b, 23a, 23b, 23c, 23d 23c, 23d 23c, 23d 23c, 23d 23c, 23d WireLength (in) 54 54 54 54 54 “W_(L)” L_(T) (in/mm)  59/1500  59/1500 59/1500  59/1500  59/1500 wire apart 0.063/1.6  0.063/1.6  0.063/1.6 0.063/1.6  0.063/1.6  (in/mm) “b” Electrode Curr. (A) 5.18 4.95 4.6510.7 10 Hydrodynamic r (nm) 26.6 27.4 26.0 31.0 27.1 TEM Avg. Dia. (nm)n/a n/a n/a 16-40 n/a Aurora- Aurora- Aurora- Aurora- Run ID: 022 023024 025 Flow Rate: In (ml/min) 60 60 60 60 Volts: Set # 1 1000 1000 10001000 Electrodes 5b 50 80 30 30 # of Electrodes 1 4 4 4 4 PE: NaHCO3(mg/ml) 0.396 0.396 3.963 3.963 Wire Diameter (mm) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5Electrode Config. FIG. 23a 23a 23a 23a Produced Au PPM 64.2 73.8 0.8 0.5Dimensions Plasma 4 FIGS. 23a 23a 23a 23a Process FIGS. 23a, 23b, 23a,23b, 23a, 23b, 23a, 23b, 23c, 23d 23c, 23d 23c, 23d 23c, 23d Wire Length(in) 54 50 50 50 “W_(L)” L_(T) (in/mm)  59/1500  59/1500  59/1500 59/1500 wire apart 0.063/1.6  0.063/1.6  0.063/1.6  0.063/1.6  (in/mm)“b” Electrode Curr. (A) 9.8 18 17 14.96 Hydrodynamic r (nm) 28.3 27.0n/a n/a TEM Avg. Dia. (nm) n/a n/a n/a n/a Aurora- Aurora- Aurora-Aurora- Aurora- Run ID: 026 027 028 029 030 Flow Rate: In (ml/min) 60 6060 60 60 Volts: Set # 1 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 Electrodes 5b 30 30 100130 150 # of Electrodes 1 4 4 4 4 4 PE: NaHCO3 (mg/ml) 3.963 3.963 0.1060.106 0.106 Wire Diameter (mm) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Electrode Config.FIG. 23a 23a 23a 23a 23a Produced Au PPM 3.7 2.0 8.1 21.6 41.8Dimensions Plasma 4 FIGS. 23a 23a 23a 23a 23a Process FIGS. 23a, 23b,23a, 23b, 23a, 23b, 23a, 23b, 23a, 23b, 23c, 23d 23c, 23d 23c, 23d 23c,23d 23c, 23d Wire Length (in) 50 50 50 50 50 “W_(L)” L_(T) (in/mm) 59/1500  59/1500  59/1500  59/1500  59/1500 wire apart 0.063/1.6 0.063/1.6  0.063/1.6  0.063/1.6  0.063/1.6  (in/mm) “b” Electrode Curr.(A) 13.4 16.32 6.48 10 12 Hydrodynamic r (nm) 33.7 and n/a 26.1 21.925.2 77.5 TEM Avg. Dia. (nm) n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a

With regard to FIG. 23a , two AC power sources 60 and 60 a areelectrically connected as shown and create four separate plasmas 4 a, 4b, 4 c and 4 d at four corresponding electrodes la, lb, lc and ld, in afirst trough member portion 30 a′. As shown in FIG. 23a , only a singleelectrode 5 a is electrically connected to all four electrodes 1. Thesepower sources 60 and 60 a are the same power sources reported in otherExamples herein. Two different amounts of processing enhancer NaHCO₃were added to the liquid 3 prior to the four plasmas 4a-4d conditioningthe same as reported in Table 13. The amount and type of processingenhancer reported should not be construed as limiting the invention. Therate of flow of the liquid 3/3′ into and out of the trough member 30 a′,as well as into the trough member 30 b′ is also reported in Table 8. Therate of flow out of the trough member 30 b′ was approximately 5% to 50%lower due to liquid loss in evaporation, with higher evaporation athigher power input at electrodes 5 b/5 b′. Varying flow rates for theliquid 3/3′ can be utilized in accordance with the teachings herein.

Only one set of electrodes 5 b/5 b′ was utilized in this particularembodiment. These electrodes 5 b/5 b′ were connected to an AC powersource 50, as described in the other Examples herein. The gold wireelectrodes 5 b/5 b′ used in this particular Example were the same goldwires, with dimensions as reported in Table 8, that were used in theother Examples reported herein. However, a relatively long length (i.e.,relative to the other Examples herein) of gold wire electrodes waslocated along the longitudinal length LT of the trough member 30 b′. Thewire length for the electrodes 5 b/5 b′ is reported in Table 8. Twodifferent wire lengths either 50 inches (127 cm) or 54 inches (137 cm)were utilized. Further, different transverse distances between the wires5 b/5 b′ are also reported. Two separate transverse distances arereported herein, namely, 0.063 inches (1.6 mm) and 0.125 inches (3.2mm). Different electrode 5 b/5 b′ lengths are utilizable as well as aplurality of different transverse distances between the electrodes 5 b/5b′.

The wire electrodes 5 b/5 b′ were spatially located within the liquid 3″in the trough member 30 b′ by the devices Gb, Gb′, T8, T8′, Tb and Tb′near the input end 31 (refer to FIG. 23c ) and corresponding devices Gb,Gb′, Cb, Cb′, Cbb and Cb′b′ (refer to FIG. 23d ) near the output end 32.It should be understood that a variety of devices could be utilized tocause the electrodes 5 b/5 b′ to be contiguously located along thetrough member 30 b′ and those reported herein are exemplary. Importantrequirements for locating the electrodes 5 b/5 b′ include the ability tomaintain desired transverse separation between the electrodes alongtheir entire lengths which are in contact with the liquid 3″ (e.g.,contact of the electrodes with each other would cause an electricalshort circuit). Specifically, the electrodes 5 b/5 b′ are caused to bedrawn through guide members Gb and Gb′ made of polycarbonate near theinput end 31 and the glass near output end 32. The members Gb and Gb′ ateach end of the trough member 30 b′ are adjusted in location by thecompasses Cbb, Cb′b′ near an output end 32 of the trough member 30 b′and similar compasses Cb and Cb′ at the opposite end of the trough 30b′. Electrical connection to the electrodes 5 b/5 b′ was made at theoutput end 32 of the trough member 30 b′ near the top of the guidemembers Gb and Gb′. Tension springs Tb and Tb′ are utilized to keep theelectrode wires 5 b/5 b′ taught so as to maintain the electrodes in afixed spatial relationship to each other. In this regard, the electrodes5 b/5 b′ can be substantially parallel along their entire length, orthey can be closer at one end thereof relative to the other (e.g.,creating different transverse distances along their entire length).Controlling the transverse distance(s) between electrode 5 b/5 b′influences current, current density concentration, voltages, etc. Ofcourse, other positioning means will occur to those of ordinary skill inthe art and the same are within the metes and bounds of the presentinvention.

Table 8shows a variety of relevant processing conditions, as well ascertain results including, for example, “Hydrodynamic r” (i.e.,hydrodynamic radii (reported in nanometers)) and the process currentthat was applied across the electrodes 5 b/5 b′. Additionally, resultantppm levels are also reported for a variety of process conditions with alow of about 0.5 ppm and a high of about 128 ppm.

FIG. 73a shows two representative TEM photomicrographs of the goldnanoparticles, dried from the solution or colloid Aurora-020, which hasa reported 128 ppm concentration of gold measured next day aftersynthesis. In two weeks the concentration of that sample reduced to 107ppm, after another 5 weeks the concentration reduced to 72 ppm.

FIG. 73b shows the measured size distribution of the gold nanoparticlesmeasured by the TEM instrument/software discussed earlier in Examples5-7 corresponding to dried Aurora-020.

FIG. 73c shows graphically dynamic light scattering data measurementsets for the nanocrystals (i.e., the hydrodynamic radii) made accordingto Aurora-020 referenced in Table 8 and measured after 7 weeks from thesynthesis. The main peak in intensity distribution graph is around 23nm. Dynamic light scattering measurements on fresh Aurora-020 sample(not shown) resulted in main peak at 31 nm. It should be noted that thedynamic light scattering particle size information is different from theTEM measured histograms because dynamic light scattering uses algorithmsthat assume the particles are all spheres (which they are not) as wellas measures the hydrodynamic radius (e.g., the particle's influence onthe water is also detected and reported in addition to the actualphysical radii of the particles). Accordingly, it is not surprising thatthere is a difference in the reported particle sizes between thosereported in the TEM histogram data of those reported in the dynamiclight scattering data just as in the other Examples included herein.

Accordingly, it is clear from this continuous processing method that avariety of process parameters can influence the resultant productproduced.

EXAMPLE 20 Manufacturing Gold-Based Nanoparticles/NanoparticleSuspensions or Colloids GA-002, GA-003, GA-004, GA-005, GA-009, GA-011and GA-013 by a Batch Process

This Example utilizes a batch process according to the presentinvention. FIG. 24a shows the apparatus used to condition the liquid 3in this Example. Once conditioned, the liquid 3′ was processed in theapparatus shown in FIG. 24c . A primary goal in this Example was to showa variety of different processing enhancers (listed as “PE” in Table 9).Specifically, Table 9 sets forth voltages used for each of theelectrodes 1 and 5, the dwell time for the liquid 3 being exposed toplasma 4 in the apparatus of FIG. 24a ; the volume of liquid utilized ineach of FIGS. 24a and 24c ; the voltages used to create the plasma 4 inFIG. 24a , and the voltages used for the electrodes 5 a/5 b in FIG. 24c.

TABLE 9 Run ID: GA-002 GA-003 GA-004 GA-005 GA-009 GA-011 GA-013 DwellPlasma 4 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 Times Electrodes 42 42 42 42 42 42 42(min) 5a/5b Volume Plasma 4 3790 3790 3790 3790 3790 3790 3790 H₂O & PEElectrodes 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 (mL) 5a/5b Volts: Plasma 4 750750 750 750 750 750 750 Electrodes 300 300 300 300 298 205.6 148 5a/5bPE* Type: Na₂CO₃ K₂CO₃ KHCO₃ NaHCO₃ NaHCO₃ NaHCO₃ NaHCO₃ mg/ml: 0.220.29 0.44 0.47 0.52 0.51 0.51 Wire Diameter (mm) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.01.0 Wire Configuration FIG. 17b  17b  17b  17b  17b  17b  17b  PPM: 7.810.0 10.0 11.3 9.7 10.0 7.7 Final Liquid Temp ° C. 96 93.5 90.5 89 90.574.5 57 Dimensions & Plasma 4 24a  24a  24a  24a  24a  24a  24a Configuration FIG. Electrodes 24c  24c  24c  24c  24c  24c  24c  5a/5bFIG. Contact “W_(L)” 0.75/19 0.75/19 0.75/19 0.75/19 0.75/19 0.75/19 0.75/19 (in/mm) Separation  1.5/38  1.5/38  1.5/38  1.5/38  1.5/380.25/6  0.063/1.6 (in/mm) Electrode Current (A) 0.69 0.65 0.64 0.66 0.760.78 0.60 Hydrodynamic r (nm) 11.1 12.0 13.9 11.9 17.6 17.1 10.3 TEMAvg. Diameter (nm) 12.24 12.74 14.09 14.38 11.99 11.99 11.76 “c-c”(in/mm) n/m n/m n/m n/m n/m n/m n/m Plasma 4 electrode # 1a 1a 1a 1a 1a1a 1a “x” (in/mm) 0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4  0.25/6.4 0.25/6.4   0.25/6.4 electrode # 5a 5a 5a 5a 5a 5a 5a “c-c” (in/mm) n/mn/m n/m n/m n/m n/m n/m Electrodes electrode # 5a 5a 5a 5a 5a 5a 5aelectrode # 5b 5b 5b 5b 5b 5b 5b

With regard to the reported processing enhancers (PE) utilized,different mg/ml amounts were utilized in an effort to have similarconductivity for each solution (e.g., also similar molar quantities ofcations present in the liquid 3/3′). The electrode wire diameter used ineach Example was the same, about 1.0 mm, and was obtained from ESPI,having an address of 1050 Benson Way, Ashland, Oreg. 97520, as reportedelsewhere herein.

The amount of electrode contacting the liquid 3′ in the apparatus shownin FIG. 24c was the same in each case, namely, 0.75inches (19.05 mm).

Table 9 also shows the effects of transverse electrode separation (i.e.,the distance “b” between substantially parallel electrodes 5 a/5 b shownin FIG. 24c ) for the same processing enhancer, namely, NaHCO₃. It isclear that electrode current and corresponding final liquid temperaturewere less for closer electrode placement (i.e., smaller “b” values).

A voltage source 60 (discussed elsewhere herein) was used to create theplasma 4 shown in FIG. 24a . A voltage source 50 (discussed elsewhereherein) was used to create a voltage and current between the electrodes5 a/5 b shown in FIG. 24 c.

Table 9 also reports the measured hydrodynamic radius (i.e., a singlenumber for “Hydrodynamic Radii” taken from the average of the threehighest amplitude peaks shown in each of FIGS. 74c-80c and “TEM AverageDiameter” which corresponds to the average measured gold nanocrystalsize calculated from the TEM histogram graphs shown in FIGS. 74b-80b ).

FIGS. 74a 1,a2-80 a 1,a2 show two representative TEM photomicrographseach of the gold nanocrystals, dried from each solution or colloidreferenced in Table 9 formed according to this Example.

FIGS. 74b-80b show the measured size distribution of the goldnanocrystals measured by using the TEM instrument/software discussedearlier in Examples 5-7 for each suspension or colloid referenced inTable 9 formed according to this Example.

FIGS. 74c-80c show graphically dynamic light scattering data measurementsets for the nanocrystals (i.e., the hydrodynamic radii) made accordingto each suspension or colloid referenced in Table 9 formed according tothis Example. It should be noted that the dynamic light scatteringparticle size information is different from the TEM measured histogramsbecause dynamic light scattering uses algorithms that assume thenanocrystals are all spheres (which they are not) as well as measuresthe hydrodynamic radius (e.g., the nanocrystal's influence on the wateris also detected and reported in addition to the actual physical radiiof the nanocrystals). Accordingly, it is not surprising that there is adifference in the reported nanocrystal sizes between those reported inthe TEM histogram data of those reported in the dynamic light scatteringdata just as in the other Examples included herein.

COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE 21 Manufacturing Gold-BasedNanoparticles/Nanoparticle Suspensions According to the Bredig/SvedbergProcesses

This Example utilizes an underwater AC plasma created between two goldelectrodes in an attempt to make a gold nanoparticle suspension similarto those made by Bredig and Svedberg (discussed in the Background).

Specifically, FIG. 81a shows a perspective view of an apparatus designedto function like the AC plasma apparatus of Svedberg. FIG. 81b shows across-sectional view of the same apparatus. In each of these figures,gold electrodes e1 and e2, each having a 1 mm diameter, were submergedinto the water 3. About 1 gallon of water 3 was contained in a glassvessel. Electrically insulating sleeve members s1 and s2 preventedelectrical arcing where undesired. The electrodes e1 and e2 wereenergized with the same transformer 60 discussed elsewhere herein. Theelectrode e1 was brought into close proximity of the end of electrode e2at an area designated “Sh”. The end “ea” of electrode of el was poundedto make it approximately flat. The flat end ea was then brought intoclose proximity with the end of the electrode e2 near the portion Sh.When the electrode end ea approached the portion Sh, an underwaterplasma 4 w was created. Once stabilized, the underwater plasma 4 w wasallowed to run for about 2.5 hours to make about 1 gallon of colloid.The results of the 2.5-hour run are shown in FIGS. 82a and 82b . FIG.82a is a representative TEM photomicrograph of the gold nanoparticlesmade according to this Example. FIG. 82b is a particle size distributionhistogram from TEM measurements of the gold nanoparticles made accordingto this Example. As is clear from the TEM photomicrograph, nonanocrystals similar to those of the present invention are present.

COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE 22a Colloidal-Based Nanoparticle SuspensionsCommercially Available

For comparison purposes, eight commercially available colloidal goldsolutions were obtained. The commercial names and sources are listed inTable 10 below:

TABLE 10 Solution Name Manufacturer Description Utopia Gold UtopiaSilver Colloidal Gold Supplements SNG911219 Source Naturals, Inc.Ultra-Colloidal Gold Nanopartz Nanopartz Accurate Spherical GoldNanoparticles Nanocomposix NanoComposix Tannic Acid NanoXact 15 nm GoldNanocomposix NanoComposix Tannic NanoXact Gold 10 nm Harmonic GoldHarmonic Innerprizes ElectraClear InSpiral Technologies Colloidal GoldMesoGold Purest Colloids, Inc.

FIG. 90c shows the UV-Vis spectral patterns of each of the 7 of the 8commercially available gold nanoparticle suspensions discussed in FIG.22a (Utopia Gold, SNG911219, Nanopartz, Nanocomposix 15 nm, Nanocomposix10 nm, Harmonic Gold and MesoGold) over an interrogating wavelengthrange of about 250 nm-750 nm.

FIG. 90d shows the UV-Vis spectral patterns for 7 of the 8 commerciallyavailable gold nanoparticle suspensions discussed in FIG. 22a (UtopiaGold, SNG911219, Nanopartz, Nanocomposix 15 nm, Nanocomposix 10 nm,Harmonic Gold and MesoGold) over an interrogating wavelength range ofabout 435 nm-635 nm.

Particle-Size and Particle-Shape Analysis

Transmission electron microscope (TEM) images were analyzed by visualobservation with the aid of software referenced in Examples 5-7.Individual particles/crystals were assigned to one of five groupsaccording to the two-dimensional projection shown in thephotomicrographs. The five categories are: triangle, pentagon, hexagon,diamond and other. These categories correspond to three-dimensionalmorphologies elucidated in the literature and prior TEM studies whichutilized a tilting sample holder. The 2D/3D correspondence of theparticle/crystal shape categories is listed in Table 11.

TABLE 11 Two-Dimensional Possible Three-Dimensional ProjectionNanoparticle Morphologies Triangle Tetrahedron Pentagon PentagonalBipyramid (i.e., Decahedron) Hexagon Hexagonal Bipyramid, Icosahedrons,Octahedron Diamond Octahedron, Various Elongated Bipyramids, FusedTetrahedrons, Side View of Bipyramids Other Icosahedrons, Spheroids,Ellipsoids, Rods, Aggregated Particles, Platelets, Particles ofUncertain Form

Certain nanocrystal forms can take on multiple two-dimensionalprojections. For example, an icosahedron, a possible shape for goldnanocrystals, can appear as a hexagon, an irregular heptagon or aspheroid in a TEM micrograph. While care was taken to discern thehexagonal, octagonal and other shapes when viewed in the two-dimensionprojection, conclusive information regarding the true form of suchnanocrystals cannot always be discerned in the two-dimensionalprojection. Therefore, only the tetrahedron and pentagonal bipyramid(i.e., decahedron) categories can be absolutely discerned. Hexagonal,Diamond and Other categories are grouped together.

A pentagonal bipyramid nanocrystal viewed on its side could be projectedas a diamond. This is an unlikely occurrence given the planar nature ofthe sample substrate and taking into consideration the very low numberof diamonds counted throughout the analysis. Those decahedrons countedvia the pentagon two-dimensional projection are distinct from thisformer group, per se, and their count was taken as one a figure of meritor method of distinguishing the inventive crystals from those of theart. Likewise, triangles or tetrahedrons are also readilydistinguishable and can also be used for comparison purposes.

Aggregation and agglomeration of particles or nanocrystals can occur ina colloid or as an artifact of the drying process required for TEMsample preparation/analysis. Dense agglomerations and largeraggregations (greater than approximately 50 particles/nanocrystals) werenot analyzed due to possible counting errors. The crystal/particlenumber and particle/crystal shapes of smaller aggregates and visuallyresolvable agglomerations were analyzed. Additionally, only wellresolved images were used for this investigation.

In order to be very conservative, during the analysis of TEM micrographsof all suspensions or colloids produced according of the invention, anyquestionable crystals were assigned to the group labeled “Other”.Questionable crystals were those that possibly belong to a well-definedcrystal categories, but some uncertainty exists (e.g., a small pentagonwith one corner obscured by an adjacent particle). In contrast, whenperforming the analysis of the particles in the commercially availablecolloids, any particle of questionable shape was given “the benefit ofthe doubt” and was assigned to the “category “Hexagonal” despite theuncertainty of its actual crystal structure. Thus the crystal/particleshape comparisons are not biased and are very conservative regardingpossible differences between commercially available colloids andnanocrystalline colloids made according to the invention.

It is clear from Table 12 that the presence of nanocrystalscorresponding in shape to pentagonal bipyramids and/or tetrahedronsis/are quite different from the commercially available colloids andARCG-05. Moreover, these nanocrystals have substantially “clean”surfaces, as discussed, shown and defined elsewhere herein.

TABLE 12 TEM Average Example Pentagonal Other Diameter Product NumberBipyramid Tertrahedron Octahedron Hexagonal Shapes PPM (nm) pH GD-007  521% 10% 2% 40% 27% 14 14.3 8.9 GB-056 17 34% 13% 6% 30% 17% 12 12.1 9.1GB-077 16 22%  8% 3% 40% 27% 8 8.7 9.0 GB-134 16 31% 18% 5% 27% 19% 917.5 9.2 GB-151 18 32%  8% 5% 36% 19% 8 10.9 9.4 GB-154 13 14%  7% 4%23% 51% 5 14.1 9.7 GB-156 13 18% 16% 5% 30% 30% 5 19.4 9.2 GB-162 14 15%32% 1% 16% 37% 8 8.9 9.0 GB-163 15  9% 21% 2% 28% 40% 8 20.6 9.1 GB-16415 12% 12% 7% 32% 37% 8 20.4 9.3 GB-165 14 22% 19% 5% 24% 30% 7 14.7 9.0GB-166 14 15% 10% 2% 24% 49% 6 13.0 9.0 GB-175 18 25% 22% 1% 23% 29% 1111.8 9.3 GB-176 18 23% 20% 1% 35% 21% 10 10.4 9.3 GB-177 18 29% 19% 1%28% 23% 10 10.9 9.3 GB-188 18 25% 23% 6% 23% 24% 8 10.6 9.1 GB-189 1826% 21% 0% 23% 30% 8 10.4 9.2 GB-194 18 22% 19% 3% 33% 23% 9 12.1 9.2GB-195 18 17% 16% 3% 45% 19% 8 11.1 9.2 GB-196 18 21% 16% 1% 31% 30% 912.1 9.1 GB-198 18 14% 10% 0% 51% 25% 10 11.7 9.2 GB-199 18 33%  9% 1%40% 17% 12 13.0 9.1 GA-002 20 30% 23% 5% 24% 18% 11 12.2 10.5 GA-003 2027% 17% 6% 32% 18% 10 12.7 10.3 GA-004 20 15%  9% 3% 38% 35% 10 14.1 9.0GA-005 20 14% 13% 4% 31% 37% 11 14.4 9.1 GA-009 20 11% 11% 2% 36% 39% 1012.0 9.2 GA-011 20  8%  6% 6% 37% 44% 10 12.0 8.9 GA-013 20  8% 13% 5%28% 48% 8 11.8 8.7 GT-033 1-4  4%  1% 1% 26% 68% 2 11.8 6.7 1AC-261-1 1212% 12% 2% 37% 37% 14 12.2 AURORA 020 19 15% 14% 1% 31% 39% 128 20.6 9.0ARCG-05 21  3%  0% 2%  6% 89% 5 13.7 6.3 Utopia Gold 22  5%  2% 1%  5%89% 9 4.7 5.1 SNG911219 22  2%  0% 0% 11% 87% 13 18.4 6.9 Nanopartz 22 2%  0% 0% 21% 77% 39 21.9 7.6 Nanocomposix 22  3%  4% 2% 10% 81% 4917.8 5.2 15 nm Nanocomposix 22  2%  1% 1% 22% 73% 51 13.7 5.1 10 nmHarmonic Gold 22  8%  2% 2% 35% 55% 5 8.9 8.8 ElectraClear 22  6%  2% 2%20% 71% 3 5.7 6.3 MesoGold 22  5%  1% 2% 15% 78% 20 8.5 5.7

EXAMPLE 22b The Zeta Potential Example

The nature and/or amount of the surface change (i.e., positive ornegative) on formed nanoparticles can also have a large influence on thebehavior and/or effects of the nanoparticle/suspension or colloid. Forexample, a protein corona can be influenced by surface change on ananoparticle. Such surface changes are commonly referred to as “zetapotential”. In general, it is well known that the larger the zetapotential (either positive or negative), the greater the stability ofthe nanoparticles in the solution (i.e., the suspension is more stable).However, by controlling the nature and/or amount of the surface chargesof formed nanoparticles the performance of such nanoparticle solutionsin a variety of systems can be controlled. It should be clear to anartisan of ordinary skill that slight adjustments of chemicalcomposition, reactive atmospheres, power intensities, temperatures,etc., can cause a variety of different chemical compounds (bothsemi-permanent and transient) nanoparticles (and nanoparticlecomponents) to be formed, as well as different nanoparticle/solutions(e.g., including modifying the structures of the liquid 3 (such aswater) per se). Accordingly, this Example measures the zeta potential ofseveral suspensions made according to the invention, as well as severalcommonly available colloidal gold suspensions.

“Zeta potential” is known as a measure of the electo-kinetic potentialin colloidal systems. Zeta potential is also referred to as surfacecharge on particles. Zeta potential is also known as the potentialdifference that exists between the stationary layer of fluid and thefluid within which the particle is dispersed. A zeta potential is oftenmeasured in millivolts (i.e., mV). The zeta potential value ofapproximately 25 mV is an arbitrary value that has been chosen todetermine whether or not stability exists between a dispersed particlein a dispersion medium. Thus, when reference is made herein to “zetapotential”, it should be understood that the zeta potential referred tois a description or quantification of the magnitude of the electricalcharge present at the double layer.

The zeta potential is calculated from the electrophoretic mobility bythe Henry equation:

$U_{E} = \frac{2ɛ\; {{zf}({ka})}}{3\eta}$

where z is the zeta potential, U_(E) is the electrophoretic mobility, εis a dielectric constant, η is a viscosity, f(ka) is Henry's function.For Smoluchowski approximation f(ka)=1.5.

Electrophoretic mobility is obtained by measuring the velocity of theparticles in an applied electric field using Laser Doppler Velocimetry(“LDV”). In LDV the incident laser beam is focused on a particlesuspension inside a folded capillary cell and the light scattered fromthe particles is combined with the reference beam. This produces afluctuating intensity signal where the rate of fluctuation isproportional to the speed of the particles (i.e. electrophoreticmobility).

In this Example, a Zeta-Sizer “Nano-ZS” produced by Malvern Instrumentswas utilized to determine zeta potential. For each measurement a lmlsample was filled into clear disposable zeta cell DTS1060C. DispersionTechnology Software, version 5.10 was used to run the Zeta-Sizer and tocalculate the zeta potential. The following settings were used:dispersant—water, temperature—25° C., viscosity—0.8872 cP, refractionindex—1.330, dielectric constant—78.5, approximation model—Smoluchowski.One run of hundred repetitions was performed for each sample.

FIG. 91 shows the Zeta potential of two colloidal nanocrystal solutions(GB-134 and GB-151) as a function of pH. The pH was varied by titratinglwt% solution of acetic acid. The measurements were performed on aMalvern Instruments Zeta sizer Nano-ZS90 in folded capillary cell DTS1060 at 25° C. 20 and 50 sub runs per measurements were used at low andhigh pHs, respectively.

FIG. 92 shows the conductivity measurements for the same colloidalsolutions tested for Zeta potential. The conductivity measurements wereobtained simultaneously on the Malvern Instruments Zeta Sizer NanoZS90when the Zeta potential was determined.

EXAMPLE 23a

This Example 13a utilized a set of processing conditions similar tothose set forth in Examples 5-7. This Example utilized an apparatussimilar to those shown in FIGS. 17b, 18a , 19 and 21. Table 8 sets forththe specific processing conditions of this Example which show thedifferences between the processing conditions set forth in Examples 5-7.The main differences in this Example includes more processing enhanceradded to the liquid 3 and a more rapid liquid 3 input flow rate.

TABLE 13 0.528 mg/ml of NaHCO₃ (Au) Run ID: GD-006 Flow Rate: 240 ml/minVoltage: 255 V NaHCO₃: 0.528 mg/ml Wire Dia.: .5 mm Configuration:Straight/Straight PPM: 8.7 Distance Distance “c-c” “x” cross Set#Electrode# in/mm in/mm Voltage section 1 1a 4.5/114.3* 0.25 750 V 5a23/584.2** N/A 750 2 5b 2.5/63.5* N/A 255 5b′ 8.5/215.9 N/A 3 5c8.5/215.9 N/A 255 Rectangle 5c′ N/A 5.25″ Deep 4 5d 8/203.2 N/A 255 5d′N/A 5 5e 2/50.8** N/A 255 5e′ N/A Output Water 95 C. Temperature*Distance from water inlet to center of first electrode set **Distancefrom center of last electrode set to water outlet

FIG. 93 shows a representative Viscotek output for the suspensionproduced in accordance with Example 23a. The numbers reported correspondto hydrodynamic radii of the nanocrystals in the suspension.

EXAMPLE 23b

This Example 23b utilized the suspension of Example 23a to manufacture agel or cream product. Specifically, about 1,300 grams of the suspensionmade according to Example 13a was heated to about 60° C. over a periodof about 30 minutes. The suspension was heated in a 1-liter Pyrex®beaker over a metal hotplate. About 9.5 grams of Carbopol® (ETD 2020, acarbomer manufactured by Noveon, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio) was added slowlyto the heated suspension, while constantly stirring using a squirrelrotary plastic paint mixer. This mixing occurred for about 20 minutesuntil large clumps of the Carbopol were dissolved.

About 15 grams of high purity liquid lanolin (Now Personal Care,Bloomingdale, Ill.) was added to the suspension and mixed with theaforementioned stirrer.

About 16 grams of high purity jojoba oil were then added and mixed tothe suspension.

About 16 grams of high purity cocoa butter chunks (Soap Making andBeauty Supplies, North Vancouver, B.C.) were heated in a separate 500 mLPyrex® beaker and placed on a hotplate until the chunks became liquidand the liquid cocoa butter then was added and mixed to theaforementioned suspension .

About 16 grams of potassium hydroxide (18% solution) was then added andmixed together with the aforementioned ingredients to cause thesuspension to gel. The entire suspension was thereafter continuouslymixed with the plastic squirrel rotating mixer to result in a cream orgel being formed. During this final mixing of about 15 minutes,additional scent of “tropical island” (2 mL) was added. The result was apinkish, creamy gel.

EXAMPLE 23c

This Example 23c utilized the suspension made according to Example 7.Specifically, this Example utilized the product of Example 7 (i.e.,GD-015) to manufacture a gel or cream product. Specifically, about 650grams of the solution made according to Example 7 was heated to about60° C. over a period of about 30 minutes. The suspension was heated in alliter Pyrex® beaker over a metal hotplate. About 9.6 grams of Carbopol®(ETD 2020, a carbomer manufactured by Noveon, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio) wasadded slowly to the heated suspension , while constantly stirring usinga squirrel rotary plastic paint mixer. This mixing occurred for about 20minutes until large clumps of the carbopol were dissolved.

About 7 grams of high purity liquid lanolin (Now Personal Care,Bloomingdale, Ill.) was added to the solution and mixed with theaforementioned stirrer.

About 8 grams of high purity jojoba oil were then added and mixed to thesuspension.

About 8 grams of high purity cocoa butter chunks (Soap Making and BeautySupplies, North Vancouver, B.C.) were heated in a separate 500 mL Pyrex®beaker and placed on a hotplate until the chunks became liquid and theliquid cocoa butter then was added and mixed to the aforementionedsuspension.

About 45 grams of the liquid contained in Advil® liquid gel caps (e.g.,liquid ibuprofen and potassium) was added to, and thoroughly mixed with,the suspension.

About 8 grams of potassium hydroxide (18% solution) was then added andmixed in to cause the suspension to gel. The entire solution wasthereafter continuously mixed with the plastic squirrel rotating mixerto result in a cream or gel being formed. During this final mixing ofabout 15 minutes, additional scent of “tropical island” (2 mL) wasadded. The result was a pinkish, creamy gel.

EXAMPLE 23d

This Example 23d utilized suspension equivalent to GB-139 to manufacturea gel or cream product. Specifically, about 650 grams of the suspensionwas heated to about 60° C. over a period of about 30 minutes. Thesuspension was heated in a 1-liter Pyrex® beaker over a metal hotplate.About 6 grams of Carbopol® (ULTREZ10, a carbomer manufactured by Noveon,Inc., Cleveland, Ohio) was added slowly to the heated suspension , whileconstantly stirring using a squirrel rotary plastic paint mixer. Thismixing occurred for about 20 minutes until large clumps of the Carbopolwere dissolved.

About 7 grams of high purity liquid lanolin (Now Personal Care,Bloomingdale, Ill.) was added to the suspension and mixed with theaforementioned stirrer.

About 8 grams of high purity jojoba oil were then added and mixed to thesuspension . About 8 grams of high purity cocoa butter chunks (SoapMaking and Beauty Supplies, North Vancouver, B.C.) were heated in aseparate 500 mL Pyrex® beaker and placed on a hotplate until the chunksbecame liquid and the liquid cocoa butter then was added and mixed tothe aforementioned suspension .

About 8 grams of potassium hydroxide (18% solution) was then added andmixed together with the aforementioned ingredients to cause thesuspension to gel. The entire suspension was thereafter continuouslymixed with the plastic squirrel rotating mixer to result in a cream orgel being formed. The result was a pinkish, creamy gel.

EXAMPLE 23e

This Example 23e utilized a suspension substantially equivalent to1AC-261 to manufacture a gel or cream product. Specifically, about 450grams of the suspension was heated to about 60° C. over a period ofabout 30 minutes. The suspension was heated in a 1-liter Pyrex® beakerover a metal hotplate. About 4.5 grams of Carbopol® (ULTREZ10, acarbomer manufactured by Noveon, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio) was added slowlyto the heated suspension, while constantly stirring using a squirrelrotary plastic paint mixer. This mixing occurred for about 20 minutesuntil large clumps of the Carbopol were dissolved.

About 6.5 grams of potassium hydroxide (18% solution) was then added andmixed together with the aforementioned ingredients to cause thesuspension to gel. The entire suspension was thereafter continuouslymixed with the plastic squirrel rotating mixer to result in a cream orgel being formed. The result was a pinkish, creamy gel.

EXAMPLE 24 In Vitro Study of the Effects of Gold NanocrystallineFormulation GB-079 on Monocyte Cytokine Production Summary

This in vitro Example was designed to determine the effects of goldnanocrystalline suspension GB-079 on four differentcytokines/chemokines. Specifically in this Example, human peripheralblood mononuclear cells (“hPBMC”) were cultured in the presence orabsence of each of four different concentration or ppm levels of goldnanocrystalline suspension GB-079 (i.e., a suspension or colloid made inaccordance with the disclosure of one example herein) in the presence orabsence of (as disclosed herein) bacterial lipopolysaccharide (“LPS”).

It is known that lipopolysaccharide binds to TLR4, a receptor expressedon a number of different immune system cells, and such binding typicallytriggers activation and/or expression of a series of cytokines,typically in an NFkB-dependent (i.e., Nuclear Factor kB-dependent)manner. After about 24 hours of culture conditions at about 37° C. inabout 5% CO₂ and a humidified atmosphere of about 95% relative humidity,supernatants were removed and assayed for the presence of a series ofdifferent cytokines/chemokines, including: MIF, TNFα, IL-6 and IL-10.The majority of, but not the only source of, these cytokines in thehPBMC population would be expected to be monocytes. Cultures in theabsence of LPS indicate whether treatments induce the production ofthese cytokines/chemokines, while those cultures in the presence of LPSwill indicate whether treatments are able to modulate the production ofcytokines in response to an inflammatory stimulus. Cytokine assays wereperformed by the Luminex® Extracellular Assay Protocol. The Luminexsystem uses antibody coated microspheres that bind specifically to thecytokine being assayed. When excited by laser light the microspheresthat have bound the antigen are measured and this is a direct assessmentof the amount of the cytokine being produced and data were provided asraw data and absolute quantities of each cytokine/chemokine measured.

Preparation of hPBMCMaterials used for Cell Preparation:

PBMC Isolation Supplier Cat. No. Histopaque 1077 Sigma H8889 RPMI 1640 ×10 Sigma R1145 Endotoxin-free water (EFW) Gibco 15230-170 50 ml falcontubes Corning 430829 Citrate ACD Sigma C3821-50 ml AB serum NationalBlood Service Plastic 24 well plates Costar/Corning 3524 LPS Sigma Mediasupplements Penicillin/streptomycin Sigma P0871 HEPES Sigma H0887Glutamine Gibco 25030-024 Sodium Bicarbonate (7.5%) Gibco 25080

Equipment NucleoCounter (i.e., Cell Number and Viability Counter Made byChemometec) Benchtop Centrifuge Tissue Culture Hood Collection of HumanBlood

Blood from a healthy volunteer was drawn into a syringe and placed intoa 50 ml falcon tube. 3.3 ml citrate anticoagulant (ACD, Sigma) was addedto the 50 ml falcon tubes in a sterile manner.

Tubes were inverted to mix.

Cell Preparation Method

-   1. 10× RPMI +supplements (25 ml 10×RPMI+2.5 ml Penstrep+2.5 ml    L-glutamine+5 ml HEPES+6.7 ml sodium bicarbonate solution (7.5%))    were mixed together in a falcon tube, herein referenced to as the    “culture media”.-   2. Blood was resuspended in an equal volume of 1×RPMI 1640 (diluted    from 10×RPMI in EFW—200 ml prepared [20 ml in 180 ml]) and mixed by    inversion in a falcon tube.-   3. The histopaque was prewarmed to room temperature (RT) and 20 ml    was added to a 50 ml falcon tube.-   4. The histopaque was gently overlayed with 30 ml blood/medium then    mixed in.-   5. The histopaque blood mix sample was spun at 1600 rpm in a    benchtop centrifuge for about 25 min at RT (no brake).-   6. PBMC were separated into the interface layer between the medium    and the histopaque, cells were removed by aspriation into a 50 ml    falcon tube and 10 ml of the culture media was added thereto.-   7. The cell sample was spun at 1800 rpm for about 10 minutes at RT.-   8. The cell sample was washed twice with 30 ml RPMI and resuspended    in culture medium (RPMI, supplemented as described above =RPMI/no    serum).-   9. During the spin, RPMI supplemented with 5% AB serum was prepared.-   10. The cell sample was resuspended in 2 ml RPMI+supplements+serum.-   11. Cell counts were completed and viability assessment was    performed using the Nucleocounter (i.e., a cell viability counter).-   12. Cells were resuspended in lx RPMI to give a final concentration    of 2.5×10⁶ cells/ml.-   13. 500 μl of cells were transferred into a 24-well plate.-   14. 10×RPMI +supplements (500 μl PenStrep, 500 μl L-Glutamine, 1 ml    HEPES, 2.5 ml AB serum) was prepared by mixing together in a falcon    tube, thereby forming the “test media”.-   15. The inventive GB-079 gold nanocrystal suspension was added to    the wells in the 24 well plate (900 μl total volume)-   16. 100 μl 10×RPMI+supplements were added to each well of a costar    24 well plate.-   17. The 24 well plates were placed into a humidified incubator set    at 37° C./5% CO₂ for 1 hour.-   18. LPS was prepared at 4× final concentration in 1×RPMI-   19. 500 μl of LPS was added per well, or 500 μl media to wells not    receiving LPS, bringing the total well volume of material to each    well to 2 ml.-   20. Plates were placed into a humidified incubator set at 37° C./5%    CO₂ for about 24 hours.-   21. 1800 μl (3×600 μl aliquots) of supernatant were removed for    ELISA analysis and Luminex analysis.-   22. Supernatants were stored at −80° C. until assayed in the    Luminex® system.

Luminex® Assay System

The supernatants were assayed in accordance with the Luminex®Extracellular Assay Protocol, accessed on Jan. 11, 2010.

TABLE 14 Sample Compound EFW 10x RPMI Cells LPS 1x RPMI Cells + Vehicle900 μl 100 μl 500 μl 500 μl Cells + Vehicle + LPS 900 μl 100 μl 500 μl500 μl Cells + [Test]_(1:5) 400 μl 500 μl 100 μl 500 μl 500 μl Cells +[Test]_(1:10) 200 μl 700 μl 100 μl 500 μl 500 μl Cells + [Test]_(1:20)100 μl 800 μl 100 μl 500 μl 500 μl Cells + [Test]_(1:40)  50 μl 850 μl100 μl 500 μl 500 μl Cells + [Test]_(1:100)  20 μl 880 μl 100 μl 500 μl500 μl Cells + [Test]_(1:5) + LPS 400 μl 500 μl 100 μl 500 μl 500 μlCells + [Test]_(1:10) + LPS 200 μl 700 μl 100 μl 500 μl 500 μl Cells +[Test]_(1:20) + LPS 100 μl 800 μl 100 μl 500 μl 500 μl Cells +[Test]_(1:40) + LPS  50 μl 850 μl 100 μl 500 μl 500 μl Cells +[Test]_(1:100) + LPS  20 μl 880 μl 100 μl 500 μl 500 μl

Cells were stimulated with LPS (a high dose of 1 mg/ml and a low dose of10 ng/ml), the supernatants were then collected after 24 hours andanalyzed for the amounts present of the 4 cytokines discussed herein.Control wells contained cells and the inventive test compound GB-079 butno LPS. Results obtained for each of the other cytokines/chemokines areshown in FIGS. 94a -94 d.

FIG. 94a shows the effects of GB-079 on IL-6 production by humanperipheral blood mononuclear cells (hPBMCs). It is clear from FIG. 94athat IL-6 levels were reduced by GB-079 in LPS stimulated PBMC. SomeIL-6 production was also observed with the highest concentrations ofGB-079 in the absence of LPS stimulation at five different concentrationlevels.

FIG. 94b shows the effects of GB-079 on IL-10 production by hPBMCs. Itis clear from FIG. 94b that the levels of IL-10 observed were unaffectedby the addition of GB-079 at all concentration levels.

FIG. 94c shows the effects of GB-079 on MIF production by hPBMCs.Specifically, FIG. 94c shows that following LPS stimulation, the levelsof MIF were reduced in a dose dependent manner. This reduction wasobserved at dilution levels of 1:5 and 1:10, while MIF levels returnedto that of control samples by the 1:20 concentration of GB-079.

Further, FIG. 94d shows that GB-079 at the highest concentrations causedan increase in TNFα levels (with both tested doses of LPS) above that ofvehicle control stimulated samples. Some TNFα production was alsoobserved with the highest doses of GB-079 in the absence of LPSstimulation.

EXAMPLE 25 Collagen Induced Arthritis (CIA) Study in Mice Summary

This Example demonstrates the efficacy of two of the inventive goldnanocrystalline compositions (i.e., GT033 and GD-007) in a mouse CIAmodel. Specifically, male DBA/1 mice (12 weeks old) were given 100 μgChicken Type II collagen emulsified into complete Freund's adjuvant(“CII/CFA”) on day 0 of the study by injection at the base of the tail.Clinical joint swelling was scored three times weekly from day 14 untiltermination at day 42. Those results are summarized in FIG. 95.Treatments were given according to the protocol below. Bleeds were takenon day 0 and day 42. At termination animals were bled, hind legs wereremoved, and ankle joints were prepared for histopathology examination.Histopathology results are set forth in Table 6 and Table 7.

Methodology Animals

-   Species: Mice-   Strain: DBA/1-   Source: Harlan-   Gender and number: Male, 30-   Age: About 12 weeks old at the start of the study.-   Identification: Each mouse was given a unique identity number.-   Animal husbandry: On receipt, all animals were examined for external    signs of ill-health and all unhealthy animals were excluded from    further evaluation. Animals were housed in groups of five under    specific pathogen free (spf) conditions, in a thermostatically    monitored room (22±4° C.) in an animal unit. Animals were    equilibrated under standard animal house conditions for at least 72    hours prior to use. The health status of the animals was monitored    throughout this period and the suitability of each animal for    experimental use was assessed prior to study start.-   Housing Animals were housed in groups of 10 per cage in a controlled    room, to ensure correct temperature, humidity and 12-hour light/dark    cycle for the duration of the study.-   Diet: Irradiated pellet diet and water was available ad libitum    throughout the holding, acclimatization and post-dose periods.

Compound and Reagents

-   Chicken Collagen Type II (Sigma, C9301).-   Incomplete Freund's Adjuvant (“IFA”) (Sigma, FF5506)-   Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Ra (BD Biosciences, 231141)-   Phosphate buffered saline (“PBS”)-   Test compounds gold nanocrystal formulations GT033 and GD-007.-   Vehicle: Water.

Treatment Groups and Dosages

-   Control Group 1, First Treatment “Group 2” and Second Treatment    “Group 3” each had 10 animals per group.-   Group 1: Day 0 CII/CFA, given normal drinking water from day 0-42.-   Group 2: Day 0 CII/CFA, gold nanocrystal formulation (GT033; Example    4/Table 1d; gold ppm 2.0) as drinking water from day 0-42.-   Group 3: Day 0 CII/CFA, gold nanocrystal formulation (GD-007;    Example 5/Table 2a; gold ppm 14.8) as the only liquid for drinking    from day 0-42.

Protocol

-   1. On arrival of animals, the health of all animals was checked and    after passing the health test, each was numbered with a unique ear    tag.-   2. The animals were allowed to acclimate for at least 72 hours.-   3. Chicken Type II collagen was prepared so as to achieve a    suspension with a concentration of about 16 mg/ml in 0.1M acetic    acid. After dissolution overnight at 4° C., the solution was diluted    with cold PBS to achieve a suspension with a concentration of about    8 mg/ml.-   4. Fresh mycobacterium was prepared by grinding it finely with a    mortar and pestle and adding about 7 ml of IFA, drop-by-drop, to    create an emulsion or suspension of CFA with a final concentration    of about 5 mg/ml.-   5. An emulsion of Chicken Type II collagen and CFA was prepared    using approximately equal volumes of each to result in the    injectable suspension of collagen in CFA (i.e., “CII/CFA”).-   6. On Day 0, the animals were injected with 50 μl of the CII/CFA    solution at the base of the tail.-   7. Treatments using gold nanocrystal formulation GT033 (i.e.,    Group 2) and gold nanocrystal formulation GD-007 (i.e., Group 3)    were given according to the schedule above until Day 42.    Specifically, each water bottle containing either normal drinking    water, GT033 or GD-007 was topped-off as needed either every other    day or every third day. The bottles were not specifically cleaned or    specifically emptied during the 42-day trial.-   8. The limb scores were determined three times per week from Day 14    to the end of the study. Each of the four limbs was given a score    according to the following;    -   0=Normal.    -   1=Slight swelling of whole joint or individual digit        inflammation.    -   2=Intermediate swelling of whole joint with redness and/or        inflammation in more than one digit.    -   3=severe joint inflammation and redness spreading to multiple        digits.    -   4=severe joint inflammation and redness spreading to multiple        digits; overt signs of bone remodeling.-   9. All animals were bled on days 0 and day 42 and the retrieved    serum was stored for optional analysis.-   10. The animals were sacrificed on Day 42 and the ankle joints were    removed and placed in neutral-buffered formalin in preparation for    histopathology.-   11. These sections were processed and stained with hematoxylin and    eosin stain (“H & E”) and were scored by a qualified (and    experimentally blinded) histopathologist using a semi-quantitative    measurement of the degree of infiltration and damage.

FIG. 95 shows graphically the results of the limb scoring CIA-test.Clearly the gold nanocrystal formulation GD-007 (Group 3), having ameasured gold concentration of about 14.8 ppm, performed the best, onpar (or better), perhaps with a typical steroid treatment, the resultsof which have also been placed onto FIG. 95 (even though not actuallymeasured). The gold nanocrystal formulation GT033 (Group 2) performedbetter than Control Group 1 at a concentration of about 2.0 ppm of goldnanocrystals suspended in water.

Histopathology was performed on the left and right paws from each of the10 mice in Group 1 (control) and Group 3 (GD-007). No histopathology wasperformed on Group 2 mice.

Each pair of paws was assigned a Pathology numerical code (e.g.,R0248-09 for one mouse in Group 1) and the limbs distinguished as left(“L”) or right (“R”) from each numbered animal.

Histopathology/Methodology:

-   -   The skin was dissected from the paw.    -   The dissected samples were decalcified to permit sectioning.    -   The decalcified samples were routinely processed, sectioned and        one H & E-stained section was prepared for examination. This        included both halves of each specimen being hemi-sectioned.    -   Each histopath paw was scored as described below. Samples were        scored in blinded fashion, without knowledge of the experimental        protocol or identity of groups.    -   Multiple phalangeal and tarsal joints were generally present on        each section. Scoring related to the most severely affected of        these joints in each case.

TABLE 15 Scoring System In this instance, three aspects of the jointpathology were scored individually to contribute to a composite score(i.e., maximum possible score = 9). Thus, the higher the number, thegreater the damage. Representative photomicrographs of jointscorresponding to the aforementioned grades 0-3 are shown in FIGS.96a-96d, respectively. Representative compilations of these grades 0-3are shown in FIGS. 97a (i.e., Grade 0) through FIG. 97e (i.e., Grade 9).Aspect Grade 0 Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Inflammation Normal joint Mildsynovial Synovial Synovial hyperplasia with hyperplasia with hyperplasiawith inflammation moderate to marked marked dominated by inflammationinflammation neutrophils. Low involving both involving both numbers ofneutrophils and neutrophils and neutrophils and macrophages.macrophages. Loss macrophages in Neutrophils and of synoviocyte jointspace. macrophages in lining. joint space; may be Inflammation may somenecrotic tissue extend from debris. synovium to surrounding tissueincluding muscle. Numerous neutrophils and macrophages in joint space,together with significant necrotic tissue debris. Articular cartilageNormal joint Articular cartilage Articular cartilage Significant damageshows only mild shows moderate disruption and loss degenerativedegenerative of articular cartilage change. Early change and focal withextensive pannus formation loss. Pannus pannus formation. may be presentformation is present peripherally. focally. Damage to Normal joint Nochange to May be focal Disruption or underlying underlying necrosis orfibrosis collapse of metaphyseal bone metaphyseal bone, of metaphysealmetaphyseal bone. bone. Extensive inflammation, necrosis or fibrosisextending to medullary space of the metaphysis.

TABLE 16 Paw Histopathology Scoring Mouse Pathology Number Total Numberand Limb Inflammation Cartilage Bone score Comments Control R0248-09 1.1L 1 0 0 1 Few neutrophils in mildly thickened synovium ideally. 1.1 R 22 2 6 R0249-09 1.2 L 3 2 2 7 1.2 R 1 0 0 1 R0250-09 1.3 L 3 2 2 7 1.3 R0 0 0 0 R0251-09 1.4 L 3 2 2 7 1.4 R 3 1 1 5 Reaction localized toP1-metatarsal R0252-09 1.5 L 3 2 2 7 1.5 R 3 2 2 7 R0253-09 1.6 L 0 0 00 1.6 R 3 1 2 6 R0254-09 1.7 L 3 2 2 7 1.7 R 3 2 2 7 R0255-09 1.8 L 0 00 0 1.8 R 3 1 1 5 R0256-09 1.9 L 0 0 0 0 1.9 R 0 0 0 0 R0257-09 1.10 L 00 0 0 1.10 R 0 0 0 0 Treatment R0258-09 2.1 L 0 0 0 0 Group3 2.1 R 0 0 00 R0259-09 2.2 L 0 0 0 0 2.2 R 0 0 0 0 R0260-09 2.3 L 0 0 0 0 2.3 R 0 00 0 R0261-09 2.4 L 0 0 0 0 2.4 R 0 0 0 0 R0262-09 2.5 L 0 0 0 0 2.5 R 00 0 0 Has localized subcutaneous inflammatory response; joints normal.R0263-09 2.6 L 0 0 0 0 2.6 R 0 0 0 0 R0264-09 2.7 L 0 0 0 0 2.7 R 0 0 00 R0265-09 2.8 L 0 0 0 0 2.8 R 0 0 0 0 R0266-09 2.9 L 3 1 0 4 2.9 R 0 00 0 R0267-09 2.10 L 3 1 2 6 Localized metatarsal-P1 reaction with markedperiosteal new bone and cartilage formation - probably localizedfracture repair rather than joint disease. 2.10 R 3 2 2 7

TABLE 17 Mean Group Scores Number Mean [%] of Group Paws (n=) ScoreJoints affected 1-Control 20 3.65 14/20 [70%] 2-GD-007 20 0.85  3/20[15%]

As is typical for this type of murine CIA model, one animal in Treatment“Group 3,” GD-007, (i.e., R0266-09) exhibited a lack of correlationbetween its right and left joints in terms of the presence/absence ofarthritis. Similar discrepancies occur in some of the control mice, aswell as differences in the severity of the arthritis between differentjoints in the same mouse (e.g., R0250-09).

It is clear, however, that the most severe pathology occurred in ControlGroup 1 (i.e., drinking water) and the least severe pathology occurredin First “Treatment Group 2” (i.e., gold nanocrystal formulationGD-007).

One animal in Treatment Group 3 (i.e., R0267-09) suffered a broken bonewhich probably accounted for its higher scores. Exclusion of this animalresulted in a mean score of 0.22. Further, the histopathology datasuggests no resulting damage at all in 8 of the 10 mice (i.e., 16 totalpaw joints examined). Clearly the gold nanocrystal formulation GD-007had a significant positive effect in this CIA test.

It is clear that the gold nanocrystal formulations produced according tothe invention significantly reduced the negative induced arthritiseffects in the CIA model, relative to the control.

It is known that reduction of excessive IL-6 and/or reduction ofexcessive MIF both reduce the negative effects of arthritic conditions.Accordingly, without wishing to be bound by any particular theory orexplanation, by reducing excessive MIF, and/or one or more signalingpathways associated with MIF, arthritic conditions can be reduced. Thegold nanocrystalline formulation GD-007 showed significantly improvedresults, relative to the control. These results, along with the resultsshown in the in vitro example and the EAE mouse model Example herein,suggest that the inventive gold nanocrystal compositions may be alteringMIF and/or more signaling pathways associated with MIF, as well as IL-6.

Example: Doses Comparison

As stated above, in the gold nanocrystal trial, each mouse had access toGD-007 solution as the only source of drinking fluid. To calculate thedose of gold consumed by a mouse per day, following equation was used:

Dose=Volume consumed (ml)×Concentration(mg/L)Animal weight (kg)

where

-   -   Dose is the nanocrystal gold consumed per mouse per day in        mg/kg/day,    -   Volume is an average amount of GB-134 solution drunk by a mouse        per day in mL/day,    -   Concentration is the amount of nanocrystal gold in the GD-007        solution in mg/mL,    -   Weight is a mouse body weight in kg.

The following assumptions were used to calculate the nanocrystal golddose:

-   -   Volume=4 mL    -   Concentration=0.0148 mg/mL    -   Weight=0.025 kg

This results in a nanocrystal gold dose of 2.4 mg/kg/day.

Below is the comparison of the gold content in doses typically used forAuranofin treatment in the type II collagen-induced arthritis mousemodel. Typical Auranofin dose is 40 mg/kg/day (Agata et al., 2000).Since the gold content in Auranofin is 29%, this results in gold dose ofapproximately 12 mg/kg/day.

In the only known human study (Abraham et al. 1997, 2008) using goldnanoparticles, a 30 mg/day gold nanoparticle dose was used for patientsweighing from 108 to 2801b. This corresponds to approximately 0.24 to0.61 mg/kg/day gold nanoparticle dose.

A comparison between dose levels of gold content in Auranofin, gold ingold nanoparticles, and the novel gold nanocrystals, used in thesedifferent efficacy studies, is shown below in Table 17a, demonstratingthat the present novel gold nanocrystals are fundamentally differentfrom, and perform very differently and at a much higher level of potencythan, conventional gold, whether in molecular form in Auranofin, or innanoparticle form as in Abraham, et. al.

TABLE 17a Study Type of Gold Product Gold mg/kg/day Mouse RA CIA NovelGold Nanocrystals 2.4 Agata/Mouse RA CIA Auranofin 12 (5X) EstimatedHuman dose* Novel gold Nanocrystals 0.005 Abraham/human Colloidal gold0.24 to 0.61 (47X to 122X) *Using mouse/mouse Auranofin/Nanocrystalspotency factor applied to Auranofin human dose

EXAMPLE 26 Acute Murine Model of Experimental Auto-Immune Encephalitis(“EAE”) Summary

This Example demonstrates the efficacy of the inventive goldnanocrystalline composition GB-056 in a mouse EAE model. Female Biozzimice 7-8 weeks old were challenged in the flank with mouse spinal cordhomogenate in CFA on day 0 of the study by injection at the base of thetail. Ten treatment group mice were orally administered the goldnanoparticle suspension treatment GB-056 (i.e., as discussed in Example17) as their only liquid for drinking by using standard water bottles.Fresh gold nanocrystalline formulation GB-056 was provided daily alongwith clean water bottles. Control group mice were provided ordinary tapdrinking water. Clinical scoring in this EAE test was completed by astandard scoring system of 0-5.0 scored from day 1 until termination atday 28. Those results are presented in Tables 9a and 9b, as well as inFIGS. 98-99. Treatments were given according to the protocol below.

Methodology Animals

-   Species: Mice-   Strain: BIOZZI-   Source: Harlan-   Gender and number: Female, 20-   Age: About 7-8 weeks old at the start of the study.-   Identification: Each mouse was given a unique identity number.-   Animal husbandry: On receipt, all animals were examined for external    signs of ill-health and all unhealthy animals were excluded from    further evaluation. Animals were housed in groups of five under    specific pathogen free (spf) conditions, in a thermostatically    monitored room (22±4° C.) in an animal unit. Animals were    equilibrated under standard animal house conditions for at least 72    hours prior to use. The health status of the animals was monitored    throughout this period and the suitability of each animal for    experimental use was assessed prior to study start.-   Housing Animals were housed in groups of 10 per cage in a controlled    room, to ensure correct temperature, humidity and 12-hour light/dark    cycle for the duration of the study.-   Diet: Irradiated pellet diet and water was available ad libitum    throughout the holding, acclimatization and post-dose periods.

Compound and Reagents

-   Mouse and Spinal Cord Homeogenate (“MSCH”) produced in-house.-   Incomplete Freund's Adjuvant (“IFA”) (Sigma, FF5506)-   Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Ra (BD Biosciences, 231141)-   Phosphate buffered saline (“PBS”) in-house.-   Test compound gold nanocrystalline suspension GB-056 (discussed    elsewhere herein)-   Vehicle: Water.

Treatment Groups and Dosages

-   Control Group 1 and the Treatment Group 2 each had 10 animals per    group.-   Group 1: Day 0 a mixture of MSCH/IFA/tuberculosis (see Protocol    below) was injected into each mouse at base of tail and each was    given normal drinking water dispensed from a water bottle, from day    0 to day 28.-   Group 2: Day 0 a mixture of MSCH/CFA/tuberculosis was injected into    each mouse at base of tail and each was given gold nanocrystal    formulation (GB-056) dispensed from a daily-cleaned water bottle    with fresh GB-056 provided daily, as the only liquid for drinking,    from day 0 to day 28.

Protocol

On arrival of animals, the health of all animals was checked and afterpassing the health test, each was numbered with a unique ear tag.

-   1. The animals were allowed to acclimate for at least 72 hours.-   2. The spinal cord was reconstituted in PBS containing mycobacterium    tuberculosis H37RA. This resulted in 6.6 mg/ml of MSCH and 400 ug/ml    of H37RA. An equal volume of Freund's incomplete adjuvant was added    to this mixture to make the final immunogen (3.3 mg/ml SCH and 200    ug/ml H37RA). This mixture could not be considered complete Freund's    because amount of mycobacterium was much lower.-   3. On Day 0, the animals were injected with 50 μl of the solution    discussed in step 3 at the base of the tail.-   4. Treatment using gold nanocrystal formulation GB-056 was given    according to the schedule above until Day 28. Fresh GB-056 was    provided daily (i.e., replaced approximately every 24 hours).-   5. The scores were determined daily from Day 1 to the end of the    study. Scoring of each mouse occurred according to the following;    -   0: Normal    -   0.5: Paretic tail    -   1.0: Flaccid tail    -   1.5: Slow and/or absent righting reflex    -   2.0: One hind limb paralysis    -   2.5: One hind limb paralysis and unusual gait    -   3.0: Two hind limbs paralysis    -   3.5: Two hind limbs paralysis+one front limb paresis    -   4.0: Two hind limbs paralysis+one or two front limb paralysis    -   5.0: Moribund-   6. The animals were sacrificed on Day 28 and the brain and spinal    cord were removed and placed in neutral-buffered formalin in    preparation for histopathology.-   7. These sections were processed and stained with hematoxylin and    eosin stain (“H & E”). Tables 9a and 9b show the raw scoring for    each of the 20 mice in this EAE study.

TABLE 18a Animal Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day DayDay Day Day Day Day # 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 2627 28 Water Control 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.5 2 2.5 5 5 5 5 5 5 2 0 0 00 0 0 0 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 1.5 1.5 1.5 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.50 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.5 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.5 1.51.5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.5 2 2.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.50  8* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.5 22 2 2 2 1.5 1.5 0 10  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.5 1.5 3 3 3 3 3 3 GR-056 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.5 1.5 2.5 3 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.52 2.5 3 3 2.5 1.5 1.5  3* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 1.5 1.5 2 5 5 5 5 5 5 5  5* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0  6* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  7* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  8* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  9* 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.51.5 2.5 3 3 1.5 *Disease Free

TABLE 18b Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day 10 11 12 13 14 15 1617 18 19 MEAN Water Control 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.400.65 GR-056 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 SEM WaterControl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.21 0.29 GR-056 0.000.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.17 INCIDENCE Water Control 0 00 0 0 0 0 20 30 40 GR-056 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 CUM. INCIDENCE WaterControl 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 30 40 GR-056 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 CUM. DISEASEFREE Water Control 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 80 70 60 GR-056 100 100100 100 100 100 100 100 100 80 Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day 20 2122 23 24 25 26 27 28 MEAN Water Control 1.00 1.65 2.00 2.30 2.30 2.452.40 2.40 1.95 GR-056 0.30 0.50 0.85 0.90 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.25 1.10 SEMWater Control 0.29 0.48 0.59 0.66 0.66 0.62 0.63 0.63 0.73 GR-056 0.200.26 0.52 0.53 0.54 0.56 0.57 0.57 0.54 INCIDENCE Water Control 60 70 7070 70 80 80 80 50 GR-056 20 30 30 30 40 40 40 40 40 CUM. INCIDENCE WaterControl 60 70 70 70 70 80 80 80 90 GR-056 20 30 30 30 40 40 40 40 40CUM. DISEASE FREE Water Control 40 30 30 30 30 20 20 20 10 GR-056 80 7070 70 60 60 60 60 60

FIG. 98 shows graphically the percent of animals developing any symptomsof disease in each of the Control Group 1 and the gold nanocrystalTreatment Group 2 (i.e., GB-056). Control Group 1 showed that 90% of themice developed at least some symptoms, whereas only 40% of the mice inTreatment Group 2 developed some level of symptoms.

FIG. 99 shows the EAE scoring averages for each group. Of note, theonset of any symptoms was delayed by two days in gold nanocrystalTreatment Group 2 and the overall scoring for Treatment Group 2 wassignificantly less than the reported averages in Control Group 1.Clearly the gold nanocrystal formulation GB-056, having a measured goldconcentration of about 12 ppm, significantly outperformed the ControlGroup 1 in this EAE test.

As is typical for this EAE model, one animal in Treatment Group 2 (i.e.,animal 4) died; whereas 3 animals in Control Group 1 died.

The most severe pathology occurred in Control Group 1 and the leastsevere in Treatment Group 2.

The one animal in Treatment Group 2 that died (i.e., animal 4) causedthe group to have a much higher score. Clearly the inventive goldnanocrystal suspension GB-056 had a significant positive effect in thisEAE test. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory orexplanation, the results of this Example, in combination with theresults of the murine CIA model and the in vitro MIF cytokine analysis ,strongly suggest that MIF, and/or MIF signaling pathways, are beingfavorably influenced by the inventive gold nanocrystalline compositionsof the present invention.

EXAMPLE 27 Long Term Exposure of Gold Nanocrystal Suspension GD-013 inMice

The purpose of this Example was to observe if any negative toxicologyeffects occurred in mice when the mice drank, ad libitum, goldnanocrystal suspension GD-013 as their only source of liquid for anextended period of time.

A total of 25 female mice were used in this Example, five (5) in thecontrol group; and ten (10) in each of two treatment groups. The controlgroup received regular bottled water in their drinking bottles. The twotreatment groups received two different concentrations of GD-013 astheir only drinking liquid. A first treatment group received a 50%GD-013 crystal suspension (with the other 50% being purified DI/ROwater) while the second treatment group received 100% GD-013 crystalsuspension. All groups were permitted to drink as much, or as little, asdesired; food was provided ad libitum as well. The weight of each animaland the average amount of liquid consumed were recorded weekly. At week23 of the study, 6 mice were sacrificed (3 mice from each of the GD-013crystal suspension treatment groups) for necropsy and pathology. Theremaining mice continued to consume the two treatment suspensionsthrough 46 weeks.

Materials and Methods:

In this type of exposure study it is acceptable to use only one sex,females, for the purposes of testing for toxicity. Data from otherstudies have shown that there is generally no difference between thesexes, but when one sex does react more strongly it is typically thefemales. Males are only used when there is some form of evidenceindicating that they may have a stronger reaction. Since, there is nosuch information indicating that males would be affected in this way,only females were used. The females used were adult, nulliparous andnon-pregnant. The Swiss

Webster strain of outbred mice was used in this example. This strain waschosen because of its widespread use in general purpose and toxicologyresearch. It also is known to not have any detrimental genetic deficitsthat could potentially interfere with data collection.

TABLE 19 Study Information Mode of Species Strain Group AdministrationDoses Duration Mus Swiss Control-5/F Via Water Ad 23 weeks musculusWebster 50% GD-013- Bottle libitum and 46 10/F weeks 100% GD-013- 10/F

Dose Preparation

All treatment groups involved in this study received the referencedGD-013 nanocrystalline suspensions in their water bottles. The mice wereallowed to drink free choice. The control group received purified,bottled water.

TABLE 20 GD-013 Treatment Information Treatment Group Lot Numbers AuContent Control Bottled Water  0.0 ppm Au 50% GD-013 Au 50/50 GD-013/ROH₂O  7.6 ppm Au 50% RO H₂O 100% GD-013 Au GD-013 15.2 ppm Au

Housing and Feeding

All study personnel entering the mouse study area wore personalprotection clothing (i.e. gloves, face mask, and shoe covers). Mice werepurchased from Harlan Laboratories. Upon receipt of the mice, the micewere given permanent identification in the form of a tail tattoo(Harvard Apparatus Tattoo). The mice were then randomly assigned andhoused by groups of 5 mice per cage. The cages were large enough toallow adequate room for 5 individuals and were not so small as to hinderclear observations of each animal. The mice were acclimated to the labenvironment for a period of one week. The housing area was maintained ata constant temperature of 22° C. (±3° C.), and the relative humidity wasmaintained at 30%-50%. Artificial, full spectrum lighting was used(PureLite 60w, 120v bulbs). Timers were used to achieve a 12-hour light12-hour dark cycle. Food was provided ad libitum (Purina CertifiedRodent Diet 5002). Standard corncob bedding was provided in the cages.Cage changes were carried out once weekly. When an animal was found deadthe cage that it was housed in was changed immediately after the deadanimal was removed.

Procedure and Observation

After the acclimation period, both treatment groups began receiving thenoted GD-013 nanocrystalline suspensions in their water bottles. Thecontrol group continued to receive purified drinking water. On the firstday of treatment each mouse was weighed, and their weights wererecorded. At the start of each week, all of the mice were again weighed,and their weights recorded. Also, the approximate amount of water andGD-013 crystal suspension consumed, was recorded each week. Throughoutthe study the mice were observed for any abnormalities or signs ofdistress.

Weight Gain

When the study began, all of the mice were approximately the sameweight. Each week, each animal was weighed, and its weight was recorded.The individual weights of each animal in the groups were then averagedand plotted graphically in FIG. 106 to show the average weight gain ofall the groups over the course of the study. A vertical line at week 23is present in FIG. 106 and denotes the time when histopathology wasperformed.

Average Daily Consumption

Every week the amount of: (1) water, (2) 50% GD-013, and (3) 100% GD-013that each group consumed was measured. Once the amount of liquid, 50%purified water, that had been consumed during the previous week had beendetermined, calculations were made to find an approximate daily intakeper animal over the course of the week. The liquid consumption data for46 weeks is shown in FIG. 107.

Results/Conclusions: Weight Gain

Statistical analysis of the average weights of the groups was performedto determine if there was any difference in weight gain and/or lossbetween the groups. Each treatment group was compared to the controlgroup; and the two treatment groups were also compared to each other.Overall there was a statistically significant weight loss between the100% GD-013 Treatment Group and the Control Group (P <0.05). There wasno statistically significant weight gain/loss between the two TreatmentGroups or between the 50% GD-013 Treatment Group and the Control Group.

Average Weekly Consumption

All three of the groups consumed what is considered to be normal amountsof liquid daily, so dehydration was not an issue. Again, statisticalanalyses of the consumption values for each group was performed todetermine if there was a significant difference in consumption. BothTreatment Groups were compared to the Control Group and both TreatmentGroups were compared to each other. The Control Group consumedsignificantly less than both Treatment Groups (P<0.05). There was nostatistical difference between the amounts consumed by the TreatmentGroups (P>0.05). There were no observable differences in health,behavior, or issues related to dehydration.

Mortality

There were two recorded deaths in the study, one from each TreatmentGroup. The first death occurred in the 50% GD-013 group at week 20. Thesecond death occurred at week 22 in the 100% GD-013 group. The mousefrom the 50% GD-013 treatment group had always been much smaller thanthe rest and had not been gaining weight; the cause of this is unknown.The other mouse had not shown any indicators of distress or poor health.No pathology was possible for these two mice.

Pathology

Three mice from each treatment group were submitted for pathology atweek 23. The following organs were submitted for histopathologicalevaluation: heart, thymus, lung, liver, kidney, spleen, stomach,duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, colon, urinary bladder, ovary, striatedmuscle, haired skin, bone marrow (femur/tibia), pituitary and brain. Thepathology findings concluded that despite some of the abnormalities thatwere noted, all were considered incidental findings that were associatedwith normal variation between individuals and normal wear and tear. Noneof the findings in the pathology report indicated any degree of toxicityto target organs. The pathologist was completely blind to what treatmentthe mice in the study received, nor did the pathologist have anyknowledge of treatment in control mice in order to eliminate possiblebias in the pathology findings.

All tissues referenced above were grossly examined and only the spleenand liver were found to have minimal to mild variations in color. Theonly specific histopathological findings are reported in Table 21. Thenumbers “2-3,” “2-5” and “4-7” in the 50% GD-013 row refer to threedifferent mice, to which the “Comments” are directed. Likewise, thehistopathology “Comments” regarding the spleen are directed to threemice, “3-3,” “5-9” and “5-10;” whereas the “Comments” regarding theliver apply to only one mouse (i.e., “5-10”). All gross examinationswere consistent with congestion from euthanasia and/or fat storage andwere considered to be within normal limits. No gross lesions were noted.

TABLE 21 Pathology Findings Group Histopathological Findings Comments50% Spleen: Hematopoiesis, EMH: normally observed in GD-013extramedullary, multifocal, minimal to moderate minimal red pulp (2-3,2-5, degrees; is considered a 4-7 common, incidental finding notindicative of toxic change or infection 100% Spleen: Hematopoiesis, EMH:normally observed in GD-013 extramedullary, multifocal, minimal tomoderate minimal to moderate, red degrees; is considered a pulp (3-3,5-9, 5-10) common, incidental finding Liver: Microgranuloma, notindicative of toxic focal, minimal, hepatocytes change or infection (5-10 Liver: Condition considered to be from bacterial showering from thehepatic portal system; not indicative of infection or toxic change

EXAMPLE 28 35-day Uptake and Distribution Acute Toxicity Study

The purpose of this 35-day study was to determine the uptake anddistribution and acute toxicity (if any) of two crystal suspensions(GB-134 and GB-151) and compare the results to a commercially availableMesogold product. Thirteen mice were involved in this study.Concentrations of gold were determined in the urine and the feces, aswell as in certain vital organs and blood of the test animals.Additionally, a selection of organs from some individuals were examinedhistologically to determine if there were any abnormalities. Further,all mice were permitted to drink up to the point that they weresacrificed for this study. This procedure was followed to insure, forexample, that accurate gold concentrations in the blood could bedetermined.

Materials and Methods:

TABLE 22 Study Information Mode of Species Strain Group AdministrationDoses Duration Mus Swiss Mesogold- Free Mesogold, 35 days musculus Webs-3/F Choice GB-134, ter GB-134- GB-151 10/F GB-151- 10/F

Dose Preparation

All treatment groups involved in this study received their solutions intheir water bottles. The mice were allowed to drink free choice. Eachgroup received either: (1) Mesogold, (2) GB-134, or (3) GB-151 (all ofwhich were not diluted) in their drinking bottles.

TABLE 23 Au Solution Treatment Information Treatment Group Lot NumbersAu Content Mesogold Mesogold 19.8 ppm Au GB-134 GB-134  8.9 ppm AuGB-151 GB-151  8.3 ppm Au

Procedure and Observation

After the animals received their respective treatments for one day,metabolic cage collections of urine and feces were initiated. A total ofnine animals per week were housed in the metabolic cages and had theirurine and feces collected. While in the metabolic cages the subject micecontinued to receive in their water bottles the liquid they had beenassigned to drink. The amount of liquid consumed during the 24-hourperiod was also measured and recorded. The urine and feces samples werethen collected and tested for Au concentration. The volume of urineexcreted, and the weight of feces collected were also measured andrecorded.

At the end of the study, all 13 animals were sent to TaconicLaboratories (Rockville, Md.) for the performance of a gross necropsyand pathology report or to have organ and blood samples collected andreturned for further analysis (discussed later herein). Microscopicevaluations were performed on the following tissues: heart, lung, liver,spleen, kidney, brain, stomach, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum andcolon. Additionally, certain heart, lung (left and right), liver,spleen, kidney (left and right), and brain were collected and returnedin an empty, sterile glass vial for further concentration analysis.

Procedure for the Digestion of Feces and Urine Samples

Specific methods were developed to determine the amount of gold in thefeces and the urine. PTFE sample cups and microwave digestion bombs wereordered from Fisher Scientific and obtained from Parr InstrumentCompany). 23mL PTFE sample cup (Fisher Cat No. 0102322A) and Parr 4781microwave digestion bomb (Fisher Cat No. 0473155) were used fordigestion.

The microwave used was a Panasonic 1300 Watt. Model No. NN-SN667W,Serial No. 6B78090247.

Urine

1.5 grams of urine was weighed in a PTFE sample cup. When urine exceededthat mass, another digestion was prepared. When the urine sample masswas below 1.5 grams the appropriate amount of D.I. water was added tobring the mass up to approximately 1.5 grams. 0.24 mL of 50% v/v HNO₃was added to the sample cup, followed by 0.48 mL of 36% v/v HCl. Thesample cup was sealed and placed inside a microwave bomb. The microwavebomb was sealed and placed in the center of a microwave. The sample wasirradiated until the Teflon indicator screw raised up 1 mm from the topof the bomb. The time the bomb spent in the microwave ranged between 30to 60 seconds depending on the urine sample. The microwave digestionbomb was removed from the microwave and cooled for 20-30 minutes, untilthe Teflon indicator screw was lowered to its original position. Thesample cup was removed from the microwave digestion bomb, and the liquidsample was transferred to a vial for testing.

Feces (1 Pellet Sample):

A singe fecal pellet was weighed in a PTFE sample cup. 5 mL of D.I.water was added to the sample cup. 0.8 mL of 50% v/v HNO₃ was added tothe sample cup, followed by 1.6 mL of 36% v/v HCl. The sample cup wassealed and placed inside a microwave bomb. The microwave bomb was sealedand placed in the center of the microwave. The sample was irradiateduntil the Teflon indicator screw raised up 1 mm from the top of thebomb. The time the bomb spent in the microwave ranged between 20 to 30seconds depending on the mass of the 1 pellet fecal sample. Themicrowave digestion bomb was removed from the microwave and cooled for20-30 minutes, until the Teflon indicator screw was lowered to itsoriginal position. The sample cup was removed from the microwavedigestion bomb, and the liquid sample was transferred to a vial fortesting.

Bulk Feces Sample

About 0.300 grams of feces was weighed in a PTFE sample cup. 5 mL ofD.I. water was added to the sample cup. 0.8 mL of 50% v/v HNO₃ was addedto the sample cup, followed by 1.6 mL of 36% v/v HC1. The sample cup wassealed and placed inside a microwave bomb. The microwave bomb was sealedand placed in the center of a microwave. The sample was irradiated untilthe Teflon indicator screw raised up 1 mm from the top of the bomb. Thetime the bomb spent in the microwave ranged between 20 to 40 secondsdepending on the mass of the bulk feces sample. The microwave digestionbomb was removed from the microwave and cooled for 20-30 minutes, untilthe Teflon indicator screw was lowered to its original position. Thesample cup was removed from the microwave digestion bomb, and the liquidsample was transferred to a vial for testing. Bulk feces samples mayrequire several digestions to digest all the feces present in theoriginal sample.

Note: If the sample didn't appear to be fully digested (i.e. solidsstill present/ discoloration on the PTFE sample cup's side walls) asecond digestion was performed. This required a second addition of thevolumes of D.I. water, 50% v/v HNO₃ and 36% v/v HCl specified for theappropriate sample. (See above procedures for correct volumes) Thesample was then microwaved again, and allowed to cool for 20-30 minutesbefore transferring to a sample vial for testing.

-   *D.I. water=Deionized water.-   *PTFE=polytetrafluoroethylene

One digested, all samples were analyzed using the atomic absorptionspectroscopy techniques discussed above herein. The pathology findingsfor the 35-day study are shown in Table 24. All tissues were grosslyexamined and only the spleen and liver were found to have minimal tomild variations in color. All gross examinations were consistent withcongestion from euthanasia and/or fat storage and were considered to bewithin normal limits. No gross lesions were noted. The comments weredirected to specific mice and are noted in Table 24. The designation“M-3” refers to one mouse in the Mesogold group; whereas “GB-134-7”refers to one mouse in the “GB-134” group; and “G151-9” refers to onemouse in the “GB-151” group.

TABLE 24 Histopathological Group Findings Comments Mesogold Spleen:Hematopoiesis, EMH: normally observed in extramedullary, multifocal,minimal to moderate minimal to moderate, red degrees; is considered apulp (M-3) common, incidental finding Liver: Microgranuloma, notindicative of toxic focal, minimal, hepatocytes change or infection(M-3) Liver: Condition considered to be from bacterial showering fromthe hepatic portal system; not indicative of infection or toxic changeGB-134 Spleen: Hematopoiesis, EMH: normally observed in extramedullary,multifocal, minimal to moderate minimal red pulp (GB-134- degrees; isconsidered a 7, GB-134-8) common, incidental finding Liver:Microgranuloma, not indicative of toxic focal, minimal, hepatocyteschange or infection (GB-134-8) Liver: Condition considered to be frombacterial showering from the hepatic portal system; not indicative ofinfection or toxic change GB-151 Spleen: Hematopoiesis, EMH: normallyobserved in extramedullary, multifocal, minimal to moderate minimal tomoderate, red degrees; is considered a pulp (GB-151-9, GB-151- common,incidental finding 10) not indicative of toxic change or infection

FIG. 108 shows there were no significant difference in weight gain foundbetween any of the groups (all P>0.05)

FIG. 109 shows that there were no significant difference in consumptionof fluids found between any of the groups (all P>0.05)

FIG. 110 shows that there was a significant difference in the amount ofAu found in the feces between the MesoGold group and both GB-134 andGB-151 groups (P<0.01). There was no significant difference foundbetween the GB-134 and GB-151 groups (P>0.05). Table 25 shows the actualrecorded results.

TABLE 25 Average Weekly Amount of Au Found in Feces Treatment GroupsGB-134 GB-151 Week Meso (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) 0 1.7286 0.5343 0.6871 158.8611 24.3989 24.8668 2 59.0330 19.1658 27.4792 3 91.3662 15.909019.6045 4 86.5076 18.4982 18.1742 5 65.3942 20.3575 24.9802

FIG. 111 shows that there was no significant difference in the averageamount of Gold found in the urine between any of the groups (all P>0.05)

TABLE 26 Average Weekly Amount of Au Found in Urine Treatment GroupsMeso GB-134 GB-151 Week (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) 0 0.0090 0.0240 0.0330 10.1318 0.0821 0.0263 2 0.1004 0.3453 0.0727 3 0.4471 0.1518 0.1264 40.1457 0.0920 0.0360 5 0.1953 0.0261 0.0380

Procedure for Neutron Activation Analysis Measurements of Tissue Samplesand Blood

Certain samples of heart, liver, spleen, kidney, brain and blood wereanalyzed for gold content. Specifically, neutron activation analysis wasutilized. Instrumental neutron activation analysis (NAA) is especiallypowerful in its sensitivity and its ability to determine accurately manyelements in a single sample. NAA does not require any chemicaltreatments or special chemical preparation of samples, thus minimizingthe possibilities of losses, contamination and any incomplete tissuesample dissolution, for example.

The NAA method involves weighing the tissue sample in polyethylenevials. An inert material is added to each vial to prevent evaporativeloss. Each vial is uniquely identified with a bar code and a neutronflux monitor affixed to the base of each vial. These vials are stackedinto one-foot long bundles for irradiation with neutrons from a nuclearreactor. The bundles contain randomly selected duplicate samples andgold standards (or known concentrations of gold) are inserted at randompositions in the bundles.

All bundles are treated in a similar manner. The bundles are submittedfor exposure to a flux of neutrons at a nuclear reactor. Specifically,the bundles are inserted into the core of a nuclear reactor for about 45minutes. The bundles are rotated during irradiation so that there is nohorizontal flux variation. (The vertical flux variation is monitoredwith the individual flux monitors.) This irradiation causes any goldpresent in the sample to become radioactive and gold then begins to emitradiation in the form of penetrating gamma rays whose energies (orwavelengths) are characteristic of gold (e.g., Au 198, 411.8 keV).

After a decay period of about six days, the irradiated samples areloaded onto a counting system. Specifically, each radiated and partiallydecayed sample is placed adjacent to a gamma-ray spectrometer with ahigh resolution, coaxial germanium detector. Gamma rays radiatecontinuously from each sample (so long as gold is present) and theinteraction of the radiated gamma rays with the detector leads todiscrete voltage pulses proportional in height to the incident gamma-rayenergies. A specially developed multi-channel analyser sorts out thevoltage pulses from the detector according to their size and digitallyconstructs a spectrum of gamma-ray energies versus intensities. Thecounting time is about 45 minutes per sample. By comparing spectral peakpositions and areas with library standards, gold is both qualitativelyand quantitatively identified. The results of the analysis are set forthbelow.

In conjunction with Table 27 below, FIG. 112 shows a bar chart, by mouseorgan type and the colloid that was orally consumed by the identifiedmice. The numbers at the end of each colloid identification refer to aspecific mouse. Specifically, organs from two mice, GB-151-4 andGB-151-5 were examined. GB-151-4 means that mouse #4 consumed GB-151.Organs from another mouse, GB-134-3 (i.e., mouse #3 that consumedsuspension GB-134) were examined as well. Organs from another mouse,Mouse #2, (Meso-2) consumed a commercially available colloidal gold.While the sample size was relatively small, differences are apparent.

Gold was not detected in two brain samples, GB-151-6 and GB-134-3, withthe detection limit of 0.35 ppb and 0.25 ppb, respectively. Bloodsamples GB-151-5 and GB-134-3 were not analyzed because of insufficientamount available for analysis.

TABLE 27 Gold concentration in different tissue samples and bloodmeasured by NAA. Sample ID Sample mass, g Gold wt %, ppb GB-151-4, −5Heart* 0.356 0.89 ± 0.187 GB-151-5 Liver 1.536 1.76 ± 0.107 GB-151-4, −5Spleen* 0.213 1.74 ± 0.244 GB-151-4, −5, −5 Kidney* 0.661 2.54 ± 0.170GB-151-4, −5 Brain* 0.889 0.73 ± 0.102 GB-151-6 Heart 0.129 0.94 ± 0.329GB-151-6 Liver 0.899 2.34 ± 0.140 GB-151-6 Spleen 0.093 4.00 ± 0.480GB-151-6 Blood 0.386 1.06 ± 0.212 GB-151-6 R& L Kidney 0.476 2.16 ±0.203 GB-151-6 Brain 0.432 <0.35 GB-134-3 Heart 0.158 1.10 ± 0.275GB-134-3 Liver 0.523 0.91 ± 0.146 GB-134-3 Spleen 0.118 1.14 ± 0.342GB-134-3 R&L Kidney 0.406 1.59 ± 0.191 GB-134-3 Brain 0.455 <0.25 Meso-2Heart 0.145 1.67 ± 0.301 Meso-2 Liver 0.935 6.67 ± 0.254 Meso-2 Spleen0.080 3.01 ± 0.572 Meso-2 R&L Kidney 0.415 7.63 ± 0.351 Meso-2 Brain0.400 0.74 ± 0.148 Meso-2 Blood 0.268 2.05 ± 0.287 *organs from two micewere combined to make one sample

1. A method for treating a patient with at least one disease selectedfrom the group consisting of multiple sclerosis and Parkinson's disease,comprising administering to a patient in need thereof an effectiveamount of a pharmaceutically acceptable suspension comprising: a.)pharmaceutical grade water; b.) at least one processing enhancercomprising sodium bicarbonate; c.) gold nanocrystals suspended in saidwater forming a suspension, wherein said gold nanocrystals: i.) havingsurfaces that do not have organic chemical constituents adhered orattached to said surfaces; ii.) having a mode particle size of less thanabout 50 nm; iii.) are present in said suspension at a concentration ofat least 2 ppm by weight per volume; and d.) said suspension having a pHof between about 5 to about 9.5, said gold nanocrystals having a zetapotential of about −20 mV or lower at a temperature of about 25° C.,said zeta potential being determined by measuring the electrophoreticmobility of the gold nanocrystals in the suspension, and the suspensiondoes not contain chloride ions.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein saidsuspension is administered orally.
 3. A method for treating a patientwith a nervous system disorder, comprising administering to a patient inneed thereof an effective amount of a pharmaceutically acceptablesuspension comprising: a.) pharmaceutical grade water; b.) at least oneprocessing enhancer comprising sodium bicarbonate; c.) gold nanocrystalssuspended in said water forming a suspension, wherein said goldnanocrystals: i.) having surfaces that do not have organic chemicalconstituents adhered or attached to said surfaces; ii.) having a modeparticle size of less than about 50 nm; iii.) are present in saidsuspension at a concentration of at least 2 ppm by weight per volume;and d.) said suspension having a pH of between about 5 to about 9.5,said gold nanocrystals having a zeta potential of about −20 mV or lowerat a temperature of about 25° C., said zeta potential being determinedby measuring the electrophoretic mobility of the gold nanocrystals inthe suspension, and the suspension does not contain chloride ions. 4.The method of claim 3, wherein said suspension is administered orally.5. A method for treating a patient with at least one disease selectedfrom the group consisting of multiple sclerosis and Parkinson's disease,comprising administering to a patient in need thereof an effectiveamount of a pharmaceutical suspension comprising: a.) water and sodiumbicarbonate dissolved therein, said suspension medium having a pH ofbetween about 5 to about 9.5; b.) shaped gold nanocrystals in saidsuspension medium forming a suspension, said shaped gold nanocrystalshaving a zeta potential of about −30 mV or lower at a temperature ofabout 25° C., said zeta potential being determined by measuring theelectrophoretic mobility of the shaped gold nanocrystals in thepharmaceutical suspension; and wherein said shaped gold nanocrystals:i.) having surfaces that do not have organic chemical constituentsadhered or attached to said surfaces; ii.) having a mode particle sizeof less than about 30 nm; iii.) are present in said suspension at aconcentration of at least about 2 ppm by weight per volume; and iv.)comprise triangle and pentagon shapes.
 6. The method of claim 5, whereinsaid suspension is administered orally.)
 7. The pharmaceuticalsuspension of claim 1, wherein said gold nanocrystals have a zetapotential of about −30 mV or lower.)
 8. The pharmaceutical suspension ofclaim 1, wherein said gold nanocrystals have a zeta potential of about−40 mV or lower.)
 9. The pharmaceutical suspension of claim 1, whereinsaid gold nanocrystals have a zeta potential of about −50 mV or lower.)10. The pharmaceutical suspension of claim 1, wherein said goldnanocrystals have shapes comprising faces with spatially extended lowindex crystal planes, said shapes appearing as triangles and pentagons.)11. The pharmaceutical suspension of claim 10, wherein said shaped goldnanocrystals further comprise shapes which appear as hexagons anddiamond shapes.)
 12. The pharmaceutical suspension of claim 1, whereinsaid gold nanocrystals are present at a concentration of about 2-200 ppmby weight per volume.)
 13. The pharmaceutical suspension of claim 1,wherein said mode particle size is within a range of about 8-18 nm andsaid pH is between about 8 to about 9.5.
 14. The pharmaceuticalsuspension of claim 13, wherein said gold nanocrystals are shaped andhave low Miller index crystal planes arranged into shapes comprisingtriangles and pentagons.)
 15. The pharmaceutical suspension of claim 14,wherein said shaped gold nanocrystals having said low Miller indexcrystal planes further comprise shapes of hexagons and diamonds.) 16.The pharmaceutical suspension of claim 1, wherein said gold nanocrystalsare shaped and include least one low Miller index crystal plane selectedfrom the group of crystal planes consisting of {111}, {110} and {100}.17. The pharmaceutical suspension of claim 1, wherein said goldnanocrystals are shaped and comprise at least one low Miller index {111}crystal plane.)
 18. The suspension of claim 1, wherein said goldnanocrystals have a mode particle size of less than about 30 nm.) 19.The pharmaceutical suspension of claim 1, wherein said gold nanocrystalshave a mode particle size within a range of about 8-18 nm.